use. A soldier is taught how a machine gun works; he is taught to fire it accurately and steadily, making repairs and readjustments instantaneously; and he is trained to use his weapon in co-operation with other soldiers for the furtherance of the common plan. The real purpose is to teach him how to think in a military way, along sound tactical lines. A purely mechanical mind is of small value in the army. The army man must learn how to use his judgment when handling his military materiel. In many respects our training of troops is similar, in its principles and methods, to the education of the schools; indeed, it has been laid down as doctrine by the Infantry School that above all things an army officer must be a teacher and trainer of men.

There are certain facts to be learned. Then the mind must be taught to think on the basis of those facts. It must be trained to remember details, to seek information, to evaluate conflicting factors, to arrive at a decision, and finally to act with force and vigor. This is the method for all army men, down to the lowest private, who must in time of peace be trained to become a corporal and lead his eight-man squad himself in time of war. According to the latest tables of organization we shall need non-commissioned officers and specialists in such numbers as to require an intelligence of "above average" or better in 37.9 per cent of our enlisted personnel. These men must have intelligence, but they must also have instruction that will give them-in addition to a purely military knowledge-something real and tangible in the way of character, initiative, decisiveness, aggressiveness and sense of responsibility. This is the true military training. The materiel is military; but, since the conditions prescribed by modern weapons have changed warfare from the old frontal clash of long lines of solid masses into the co-operation of separated units, the essence is the development of sound thinking and individual responsibility. This is our army edu

a

cation. It is a type which builds

men.

TRAINING OFFICERS

The army trains officers not as it did this during the war, hurriedly, frantically, and insufficiently, in three-months camps. It is now done much more thoroughly and in a manner more worthy of the seriousness and dignity of the profession of arms. When an officer is commissioned, he has just begun his education. There is a complete system of higher education through which all officers have to go. Each branch of the army has its special service school, as, for instance, the Infantry School at Camp Benning, Ga., the Cavalry School at Fort Riley, Kan., and the Field Artillery School at Camp Knox, Ky. Each of these gives three full-year courses which all officers of each branch have to take when their turns come. Then there are the General Service Schools, each comprising a full-year course: the School of the Line and the Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, and the Staff College at Washington. Six years! This is higher education with a vengeance. And our officers are trained not only in military technique, but as leaders of men, particularly as instructors who shall in turn train our next National Army. Further than that, these schools train not only officers of the Regular Army, but also National Guardsmen and Reserve officers. And, not by any means to be overlooked, overlooked, the Reserve Officers' Training Corps schools and colleges train those youths who will be the platoon and company commanders in our next war.

What, then, is the nature of this training? It is not merely military, with only drills and ceremonies, as the laymen seem to imagine, any more than is our training of troops. We teach military history, modern diplomatic history, international law, educational psychology, and a clearcut, practical form of logical thinking. In our officer schools, in our non-commisioned officer schools,

and in our garrison schools we inculcate the spirit of discipline, and discipline does not mean punishment, nor are its symbols the guard-house and a court-martial. Discipline is a state of mind, a loyalty, a habit of action which enables leaders to obtain orderly and efficient results even without the giving of commands. Rigid attention to detail, careful exchange of military courtesies, upright bearing, and uncomplaining obedience to instructions are required of every officer and every soldier. "The ultimate aim of disciplinary training," says the War Department, "is to enable a man in battle, under heavy fire, when separated by wide intervals from his comrades on either side, to stick to his task, to utilize intelligently the weapons with which he has been trained, and to obey such orders as may be signaled or otherwise transmitted to him by his superiors, or in their absence properly to carry on his mission in the light of his own judgment." This is army training, based on the development of sound leadership, beginning with the squad and going on to the higher units. This is more than military mechanics. It is education of a high order.

120,000 men taking courses such as these.*

Here the lad who has been forced by family circumstances or by economic pressure to leave the day schools can continue to improve himself while solving the problem of selfsupport. He can learn grammar and history and mathematics, or he can learn a trade. He can also work his way through school, earning his living while he learns. And let no one imagine that this educational and vocational system is Federal philanthropy, or Federal competition with the public schools of our cities, or a mere trick of the peace-time army to get recruits. This system is of immense value to the individuals who take the courses, to be sure, and we must not forget that in a group in the Second Corps Area, where "no attempt was made to 'sell' vocational training to the men," 90 per cent of the recruits elected courses "of their own free will and accord." This system is of value to the country as a whole in increasing educational facilities, reducing illiteracy, and providing skilled labor of a well disciplined and patriotic mind; and we must not forget that 24.9 per cent of the young citizens enlisted and inducted during the last war were actually illiterate. But this system is likewise of great utility to the army itself in a purely military sense.

During the recent war we had to hold schools to teach our privates the English language, and finally, pressed for time, we organized various "foreign legion" units at Camp Gordon. We had to start courses to develop specialists in subjects which the men might have learned before enlistment, and we taught 1,250,000 men in this way. It is now being planned to give many of these courses in correspondence work to members of the National Guard and Organized Reserves. This is considered an urgent matter, in a military sense. It has been found

*This list is from the courses given at one of our smaller posts, and thus is thoroughly representative. A still greater variety of subjects is offered at the larger camps.

that, though we require 37.9 per cent of our enlisted men to demonstrate intelligence "above average" or better, we have only 34.8 per cent with that intelligence, and that the proportion of that intelligence in the civilian population, according to all estimates, is even less. This has recently been pointed out by Professor McDougall in his book, "Is America Safe for Democracy?" The others must be developed, and this is being done. through our military schools. "In-. telligence" is an innate quality, but it can and must be developed by means of education. The education is being provided. Though this is being done for purely military purposes, the country at large must recognize that the army is at the same time educating the uneducated, developing the intelligence of the nation and making better citizens.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Every man who has worn the uniform in our present-day army is now a more useful citizen when he gets his discharge than he was the day he enlisted. He is able to take up the rifle and bayonet in time of war for the execution of the primary mission of our army-national defense; but he is also better educated in a general way and better trained to work at a trade.

The army teaches by what is called the "applicatory method," which was developed by the School of the Line and is designed to train the type of soldier required in modern warfare. In the words of C. R. Mann, "Since every soldier in battle is almost certain at some time to be placed in a position requiring independent action and qualities of leadership, it is essential that the training system of the army should develop in every man, as far as possible, independence, initiative, resourcefulness, and powers of quick and sound judgment. There are two fundamental principles underlying the applicatory method. The first is that the best method of training men to think is

to place them in real situations which challenge their abilities and make thinking necessary. The second is that progress is best measured by objective standards which reveal what a man can actually do." The army teachers begin with an explanation; then they have a demonstration; then an application. All the psycholog ical aids of the laws of association are utilized; both oral and visual means of presentation are employed. The principles taught are then put to immediate practice, forcing the mind of the man under instruction to work immediately in and around the facts taught thus fixing the instruction practically and indelibly.

The army instructor meets many of the same problems that are met by civilian educators. Indeed, we feel that in a few particulars we have answered questions which the civilians have not been able to answer; we have new methods which they might well study, for we as well as they have on our hands the vital issue of national education. We teach illiterates, for instance, how to read and write by having them study and copy out such sentences as these:

It is a big job to learn to read and write. A good American soldier likes a big job. We are American soldiers.

Theodore Roosevelt wrote letters to his children and his children wrote letters to him.

My sergeant can read, write and

gun.

My sergeant is a good soldier.

use

a

I have learned to brush my teeth, to keep my head and shoulders up, and to keep my uniform neat and clean. The army is a good place for any man. I learned what our flag means. Uncle Sam is good to us.

They read of the lives of great Americans, and every biography emphasizes the value of education to Washington, Jefferson, Grant, Franklin, Roosevelt, Lincoln. They are always taught patriotism, whatever the subject of instruction. They are taught self-reliance, obedience to duty, self-respect. After their service, they can intelligently function as

the nation at heart, fine upstanding youths who are a credit to the army and the nation. Nor should we ever forget, whether we are dressed in khaki uniform or in academic cap and gown, or in the sack suit of the man-in-the-street, that, as Steinmetz says: When God holds His assizes and hurls the nations against one another in battle, there is no single element of physical, moral, or intellectual worth which does not weigh in the balance."

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D

OWN through the ages the long procession of unmarried mothers" has come- -a pale and spectral line of figures whose faces are stamped with suffering. Behind them come their children-born out of wedlock-a wan and ghostly pageant, on whose pinched features are reflected the agony and bitterness of their mothers. Little martyrs are these, whose wistful eyes are too big for the thin faces, and whose narrow temples, like those of the child Saint Dmitri, are stained with the crimson wounds of their martyrdom.

Among all races, among all peoples, from the time, many thousands of years ago, when marriage was established as an institution, and the bride was brought to the house of the bridegrom amid the music of hymeneal feasts, the problem of birth outside of marriage has been always present: A problem, like a stream flowing to the sea, that ever widened and deepened, and, like the sea, ever a waste of salt bitterness. For mar

riage, from being merely a protection to woman, grew into a legal device to perpetuate private property and inheritance rights. When this stage was reached, the stigma on the child not born in wedlock became greater, and greater also became the dangers to which the offspring were subjected.

But the stream never ceased flowing. Down through the dark years of the Middle Ages it came, a gloomwrapped, tortuous current, flowing mostly underground, unseen and unrealized by the multitudes of happy mothers who could look in the eyes of their newborn children without shame or self-reproach. The solemn lawgivers realized that it existed, when they had to punish, often with death, the guilty mothers brought before them for the crime of infanticide. The Church also knew it as well as, if not better than, the civil authorities, and when the State deprived the proscribed children of their civil rights, the Church took

from them also their ecclesiastical rights. Theirs not the joy of absolution or of burial in consecrated ground. Those that survived were branded for all their span of lifebranded even before they were born, by the agonies suffered by the mother when she knew her disgrace; branded by all her nervous reactions and dread, her pain and humiliation. One of the most pathetic figures in literature-Marguerite in Goethe's Faust "-will remain immortal as a picture painted by the hand of genius of the mental, moral and physical agonies endured by such unwedded mothers.

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If this were all there was to it-if it were merely a question of suffering the self-righteous and pitiless world would have no immediate concern. On the contrary, as the social history of the world has demonstrated, it would allow the process of suffering to go on forever, strong in its entrenched belief that sin must find its punishment. As ye have made your bed-!" The moral castigation of the community is necessary, for otherwise sin would be encouraged; the illicit mother, far from being helped, must be cast out forever, as a warning to all those who refuse to accept the convention and who refuse to recognize the sanctity of the marriage code. Furthermore,

A

the rights of the legal child over the illegal child must be maintained. curious state of affairs it would be, have thought the men who gave the world its social legislation, if the child born out of wedlock were admitted to have rights on an equality with the child born in wedlock!

The result of this attitude toward the unmarried mother has been that the laws relating to this subject are stamped with an inherent cruelty which has done nothing to mitigate the evil, while adding to the sufferings of the transgressing women and their offspring, and hence ultimately to the aggregate of the sufferings of humanity. If the erring woman, driven to desperation by shame and poverty, committed infanticide-and

infanticides have been frequent from the medieval to the modern epochshe was tried by the inexorable majesty of the law, and duly punished without regard to psychological complexities or relative judgments. And the father of her child has remained immune from all responsibility. All the anguish and disgrace have fallen upon the mother. An inevitable result has been that the children have suffered by reaction. They have been born in large ratio abnormal, the victims of nervous and psyschological disorders; the mortality among them has been twice that of legitimate offspring, and of those that survived, the social records existing indicate that many were defectives, tending to become burdens on the community or to drift on the easy stream leading down to criminality.

THE PRESENT SITUATION

What is the world situation in our modern times? Study of an authoritative source-the Annuaire International de Statistique, published by the permanent Bureau of the International Institute of Statistics at The Hague, 1917-shows that the great underground stream is still flowing. The table on the following page giving the number of unlegalized births in the various countries of Europe is based almost wholly upon figures from that source. (This and the two tables near the end of the article are taken from the study published by the United States Department of Labor referred to on Page 436.) Blanks indicate that no figures are available for the periods shown.

It will be noted from this table that the average for the period 1910-14 shows almost everywhere an increase over the preceding period tabulated, and that the figures given for 1915, 1916 and even 1917, where available, show a similar increase.

That there is a great evil here which the world has tolerated for too many hundreds of years there can be no question. An average of 9 per cent. of fatherless children in the world's population equals an enormous