The last voyage of St. Paul is to Rome; part of which is shewn in our map, Acts xxvii. From Keisarieh to Seidé, to Cyprus, the sea of Cilicia, Pamphylia, Myra in Lycia, Cnidus, Crete.

Our map concludes before we accompany the apostle so far; and here we, too, conclude our illustrations of the voyages recorded in Scripture. The reader will judge from this specimen, of the accuracy with which St. Luke's journal of his gospel-travels was kept; and since we find the utmost regularity wherever we trace him, we may safely consider him as a writer of unexceptionable correctness, in his history of events, wherein we have no such means of examining his narration. This idea is independent of, but not inconsistent with, the principle of inspiration communicated to this sacred historian.

We may, however, mark the situations of the Seven Churches of (western) Asia, of which we read in the Revelation: tracing them according to the order of the extract in No. cccxxvIII. as they were visited by the writer of that journey. The reader will see by the situation of the isle of Patmos, how well it is placed for corresponding with these cities.

(1.) Smyrna: in this city is the principal factory of European commerce. (2.) Bergameh, the ancient Pergamos. (3.) Thyatira, now Ak-hissar, "the White Castle." (4.) Sart, the ancient Sardis. (5.) Philadelphia, now Alacheher, "the Fair City." (Colosse, is the present Konos.) (6.) Laodicea" is now utterly desolated, without any inhabitants, except wolves, jackals, and foxes; it stands about the place inarked*. (7.) Ephesus, formerly a city of great dignity and consequence.

Thus have we connected many Scripture occurrences, we hope with correctness, certainly not without labour, and here terminates this division of our subject.

No. DXC. ILLUSTRATIONS OF PROPHECY.

WE take this opportunity of suggesting the farther utility of maps, when prophecy relating to the countries they represent is in question, no less than on matters of history, of which they have been the scenes. We hinted in No. CXLVII. on the resemblance in form between the seven-eared wheat of Egypt, and a map of the Nile; that the seven mouths of that river corresponded to the seven ears of the wheat; as the seven bullocks did to seven ploughing seasons, which came up out of the river, that is, from its annual inundation: and wherein, even the trefoil on which these bullocks fed, might have its import (whether implying a fattening on the natural productions of the land, during three years; or, on stored supplies, as trefoil is three years in coming to perfection).

It is well known, that the pious and learned Mr. King, some years ago, proposed to explain the "land shadowing with wings" of Isaiah xviii. by means of a map of a country whose geographical form should resemble the figure of wings. One would suppose, that some commentators had indulged the same fancy, on the subject of Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the image whose head was of gold, his arms of silver, his belly and thighs of brass, his legs of iron, and his toes of mingled iron and clay (Dan. ii. 36, &c.); for they consider Babylon as the head; Media and Persia as the shoulders; Greece as the body (which is far west); Rome as the legs (still farther west); and the ten toes as the ten kingdoms of the Roman (western) empire; including even France; and the western islands of Britain. It is true, we have lately seen the map of England crumpled into the shape of a woman riding on a fish; and that of France in the form of a ship in distress (published during the rage of

the revolution in that country). Such anamorphoses might be known to Daniel; but, we take this opportunity of doubting very strongly, whether any part of this image should be extended beyond the empire of Nebuchadnezzar; for if so, why add the vision of the four beasts? and why reveal to Nebuchadnezzar what in no wise concerned him, or his kingdom? It is much more reasonable to conjecture that the first vision (the image) referred to the political person (realm) of Nebuchadnezzar; and should be restricted to that empire of which Babylon was the head: while the second vision, that of the tree, referred to the human person of Nebuchadnezzar, and to events accomplished in himself: whereas, the vision of the four beasts was a revelation to the prophet, not to the statesman; not to the king's officer or attendant, but to a person commissioned to write for general instruction and general advantage. And farther, the prophet seems to be transported from Shushan, or from his customary residence-to "the great sea," in the Hebrew acceptation of that term, the Mediterranean, where he was about midway between the eastern beast (Babylon) and the western beast (Rome), so that he might readily be supposed to refer to both, being so situated as to observe them both; independent of the circumstance of his seeming to himself to be hereby stationed in his native country, the Holy Land of Israel, which we think he is not in any other of his visions.

This, if admitted, corrects the representation of Bishop Newton on the Prophecies (who has but followed the opinions of others), that the toes of the image are the kingdoms into which the (western) Roman empire was broken, vol. i. p. 385. We agree, that Babylon is the golden head [crown; or rather, casque, if we suppose this figure to have been in armour, like certain statues of the god Bel, which is not improbable] -the breast and arms of brass (that is, the pieces of armour which covered the belly, and hung down over the thighs; and which the Romans formed into labels) are the empire of Alexander; who made Babylon the seat of it, the little while he lived, and whose successors maintained their power in these countries: but, we would not go out of Asia for the two thighs of brass (as is usually done, taking Egypt for one) but would rather take the Grecian monarchy of Babylon under Seleucus for one, and the Syrian monarchy under Antigonus for the other. Theodorus, and the Parthians under Arsaces, established themselves in the eastern part of the dominions of Nebuchadnezzar; as, after a time, did the Romans in western Asia. To the Parthian empire the Persian succeeded, east of Babylon: and the Turkish to the Roman, west of Babylon; so that no power rules (or has for many ages ruled) at the same time over both these districts of the ancient Babylonish dominion. Moreover, we are assured by every traveller who passes through these countries, that the governing power is felt by the inhabitants as iron which tramples on (themselves) the clay; under pretence of protecting it;—as the armour on the feet (vide PLATE XII.), being made of iron, does not combine with the foot it covers; or as iron plates may have clay between them, yet these substances do not coalesce. That there exists no more union between the inhabitants of these parts of the Turkish government, and those who govern them, than between iron and clay, is notorious, from the general dis position of the country to revolt, in case the bold attempt of Buonaparte to overset the Turkish power had not been stopped by the providential repulse he received from Sir Sidney Smith at Acre.

We conceive, therefore, that the state of the Turkish power in these countries cannot be better (metaphorically) expressed than by the words of the prophet, "And as the toes of the feet were part of iron and part of clay, so the kingdom shall be partly strong and partly broken. And whereas thou sawest iron mixed with miry clay,

they, the governors, shall mingle themselves (by connections, marriages, &c.) among the seed of (Anusha) low men, as the inhabitants shall be esteemed; but they, the governors and governed, shall not cleave one to another, shall not coalesce, even as iron is not mixed with clay." How exactly this is the case, wherever the Arabs are under the yoke of the Turks [the same in Egypt, and the same also in Greece, in reference to the Greeks], is too notorious to require a word of proof: and could we obtain equal information in respect to Persia, we should discover precisely the same contradictory feelings in that country; as appears from the relation of Hanway, who, unhappily for himself, found the Persian peasants too ready to revolt against their then despot-the famous Nadir Shah.

The reader will understand, then, that although a part of the Roman empire may be referred to in this figure, yet only the eastern part of that empire; excluding all western dominion whatever. This principle is supported, no less than others appear to be, by those ancient interpretations which refer to the Romans (as Jerom and others), but does not allow that comparison between the ten toes of this image, and the ten horns of the fourth beast in chap. vii. to which commentators have resorted but it considers them as subjects independent of each other, and to be explained by independent history accordingly.

It may just be worth while here, to insert the observation of Gibbon, that Babylonia was reckoned equal to one-third of Asia, in point of revenue, previous to the time of Cyrus; and latterly, the daily tribute paid to the Persian satrap was equal to an English bushel of silver. If we ask, What is its present condition? Mr. Kinneir informs us, p. 237. "The mighty cities of Nineveh, Babylon, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon, have crumbled into dust: the humble tent of the Arab now occupies the spot formerly adorned with the palaces of kings, and his flocks procure but a scanty pittance of food, amidst the fallen fragments of ancient magnificence. The banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, once so prolific, are now, for the most part, covered with impenetrable brushwood; and the interior of the province, which was traversed, and fertilized with innumerable canals, is destitute of either inhabitants or vegetation." He adds in a note, "Where private property is insecure, and where the cultivator can never reckon on reaping the fruits of his labours, industry can never flourish. The landholder, under the iron despotism of the Turkish government, is at all times liable to have his fields laid waste, and his habitation pillaged by the myrmidons of those in power." What is this, but the inconsistent mixture of iron and clay?

No. DXCI. OF BABYLON.

OUR travels have brought us again into the regions of the East, and it would be unpardonable to withhold a more extended notice of that once great, formidable, and most opulent metropolis, to which we have alluded as the favourite residence of Nebuchadnezzar-Babylon the Great. Of what other city are terms used, equally haughty, equally magnificent ?—the Golden City! (Isaiah xiv. 4.)—the Glory of Kingdoms!—the Beauty of the Chaldees' excellency! (xiii. 19.)—the Tender and Delicate! the Lady of Kingdoms!-a Lady! a Queen for ever! who says, I am and none else beside me! xlvii. These, and other terms, altogether peculiar, express her beauty; and as for her power, she is called-the Hammer of the whole Earth! (Jer. 1. 23.)— the Battle Axe! the weapons of war! proper to break in pieces nations, and to destroy kingdoms, li. 20. Kingdoms and nations she did destroy:-but, after a while, her

turn came; and we now contemplate in her ruins a speaking instance of the vicissitude of human affairs; a most impressive evidence of the fulfilment of prophecies wherein were foretold the devastations which those ruins now witness.

And this deserves an unusual proportion of attention: for the prophecies respecting Babylon are little other than a tissue of contradictions-of contradictions which no human foresight could predict; or, if it did predict them, could, by any possibility, vindicate, or could solve, on any rational hypothesis. For instance, Jeremiah says, the sea is come up over Babylon; she is covered with the multitude of its waves :-yet the same prophet denounces a punishment altogether contrary: I will dry up the sea of Babylon, and will make her springs dry. In reference to the first threatening, we know that Babylon is more than five hundred miles from the ocean; in reference to the second, we know that there was no sea at Babylon, and probably no springs. The prophet speaks thus also, Behold, I am against thee, O destroying mountain, which destroyest all the earth, saith the Lord: and I will stretch out my hand upon thee, and roll thee down from the rocks; and will make thee a burnt mountain, Jer. li. Rocks! where there was not a stone in the country. A mountain! where the whole territory was a morass or a plain. A burnt mountain! where the sea was to overwhelm the locality with the multitude of its waves. What can all this mean: How are we to reconcile these oppositions? If we establish either alternative of these prophecies, by what means shall we secure the veracity of the other? But, if either alternative be false, what becomes of the inspiration of the prophet, who has thus committed his pretensions to the mercy of events charged with the justification of direct contradictions.

To do the subject justice would require a dissertation of no common length.— We form no such pretensions. It might be proper, in that case, to divide the inquiry into three periods, (1.) that of the famous tower, which occupied the energies of no inconsiderable portion of mankind: with the selection of the site by Nimrod, of whom we read the beginning, or chief, of his kingdom was Babel," Gen. x.-(2.) The accessions of space and ornament, as described by historians; assigned to various ages and sovereigns, to Belus, Ninus, Semiramis, and lastly to Nebuchadnezzar, under whose reign Scripture states various interesting particulars, and extraordinary events. (3.) The decline and ruin of this famous city; or rather, as more properly included in our principal subject, the prophetical state, or the predicted sufferings and total destruction, of this unrivalled Queen of Cities. A few words in this illustration of passages of holy writ, may take the order suggested.

No. DXCII. OF THE TOWER OF BABEL.

WE have endeavoured to illustrate the pyramids of Egypt, before introducing the Tower of Babel, which probably was their original, because they are better known, are in good preservation, and may be appealed to, in illustration of that which no longer exists at Babylon: to which we may add, that very few persons have visited Babylon, whereas Egypt has lately been visited by thousands.

The points of comparison to which our attention may be directed are these, (1.) a river runs before the pyramids, which agrees with the notion of their being sacred structures, since the stream was suitable to purposes of ablution; in like manner, a river ran before the Tower of Babel. (2.) The general form of these structures were alike, that is, broad at bottom, rising very high, tapering at top. (3.) The internal construction was of less costly materials than the external; being of sun

baked bricks, at best; while the external was furnace-baked bricks at Babel, but immense stones in Egypt, which insured the durability of the Egyptian edifices. (4.) A city extended on each side of the river in both instances. (5.) The royal palace was separated from the temple by a considerable width of water. (6.) There were apartments, or chapels, in each. (7.) There were sacred cloisters or courts around. (8.) There was (or was intended to be) at the top a great image: there are indications of such an intention on the top of the open pyramid. This thought is not new the Jerusalem Targum asserts it of Babel; and says that the image was to have held a sword in its hand, as a kind of protector against men and demons-Faciamus nobis IMAGINEM ADORATIONIS in ejus fastigio, et ponamus Gladium in manu ejus, ut conferat contra acies prælium, prius quam dispergamur de superficie terræ. These obvious agreements sufficiently evince that these structures were alike in form and in destination, so that we may judge pretty accurately on what we do not know of the one by what we do know of the other. They contribute also to establish our inference that the same people (though not the same branch of that people) were the builders of both.

Being now enabled, by means of these points of comparison, to comprehend the intention of the builders of the Tower of Babel, we proceed to consider the mode of its construction. We read (Gen. xi. 3.), that they proposed to make bricks and to burn them thoroughly: that these bricks were employed by them as stones; of which it should appear the country was destitute;-" instead of (mortar) chemar they had chamar," where the reader will observe, that the same word is used under two pronunciations, and this, probably, ought to be thus understood-" instead of clay-mortar,' which is the kind used in countries east of Shinar, for buildings not expected to exceed ordinary duration, these determined builders employed the bitumen which rises in the lands adjacent to this Tower, or was brought from sources higher up the Euphrates: -bitumen-mortar, to resist moisture from morasses formed by the river. That this application of it was analogous to the properties of bitumen, may appear from the following extracts:

"On occasion of an inundation, about the year 1733, the foundations of the walls in Bagdad were covered with a composition, of which bitumen made a part." (Ives, page 281.)

The cement in the remarkable fortress of Alkadder, in the Chaldean Desert, according to M. Carmichael's description of it, appears to be bitumen. We know not the date of its construction.

The wall of Media (which shuts up the isthmus between the Euphrates and the Tigris above Babylon) was built of burnt bricks laid in bitumen (Xenophon, Anab. lib. ii.); and the walls of Perisabour, in Babylonia, taken by Julian, were of the same materials. (Amm. Marc. lib. xxiv.) So that bitumen was much in use as a cement; but less in succeeding times. None appears in the ruins of Ctesiphon, or in Bagdad.

The quantity of bitumen that must have been employed in building Babylon is scarcely credible. Most probably it was procured from Hit on the Euphrates, where it still abounds. "The master-mason told me (says M. Beauchamp), that he found some in a spot where he was digging, about twenty years ago; which is by no means strange, as it is common enough on the banks of the Euphrates. I have myself seen it on the road from Bagdad to Juba, an Arabian village, seated on that river."

The men engaged at Babel had two objects in view; (1.) to build a city, and VOL. IV.

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