In April, 1915, the Germans began a strong offensive movement to capture Calais, on the English Channel. Had they succeeded they might have controlled that important waterway. By the use of asphyxiating gas, then used for the first time, they gained nearly three miles. Two attacks on Ypres were frustrated, largely by the heroism of Canadian regiments. No further effort to take Calais was made. All through the summer bitter trench fighting continued. All Western Belgium and Northeastern France was a maze of trenches; at one point on a line of twelve miles there were 200 miles of trenches. The French gradually crept towards Lens, the most important coal mining town in France, which was held by the Germans and was daily contributing to their needs. The most important allied gain was the capture of a vast underground fortress of steel and concrete, known as the Labyrinth, which the foe had believed impregnable. It covered an area of over two square miles.

In September a tremendous drive was begun by the British and French in Champagne, Artois and Belgium. The Germans were driven back three miles, but the allies could not break through. At the end of the year, however, it was seen that the titanic effort of the preceding months had wrested fifty square miles of territory from the invaders.

On the Eastern Front. The Germans hoped Russia would first attempt operations through

licia. Von Hindenburg defeated the effort in the north, and gained fame in the Mazurian lakes region, but in the south the Slavs were more fortunate. They advanced against the Austrians, took the important city of Lemberg on August 31, 1914, and began a siege of Przemysl, which they captured, March 22, 1915, after an investment of the town for seven months.

Von Hindenburg attacked in Poland and reached within seven miles of Warsaw in October, 1914, when Nicholas turned him back in a reverse so serious that he was unable at once to go to the help of the Austrians in opposing a second invasion of Galicia. The Austrians were slaughtered in the Carpathian snows, and Cracow was threatened. Russia's victorious army followed too far, and Von Mackensen's Germans, by a marvelous feat at arms, nearly annihilated the enemy. Again Von Hindenburg struck in the direction of Warsaw, but was checked by Nicholas, and a deadlock ensued until the middle of 1915.

The Austrians, with fresh troops in vast numbers, tried conclusions again with the Russians in Galicia, and were badly defeated. The latter were able to occupy all the important Carpathian passes, and these they held until June, 1915. At the end of 1914 Germany and Austria-Hungary were on the defensive along most of the eastern front.

In 1915 disaster befell the Russians, largely because of lack of munitions. It was later known that high officials in the Empire were criminally responsible for this condition. The central powers massed powerful forces all along the line, and gained much territory. Russia was driven out of Galicia; it lost Lemberg; Przemysl was again in, Austro-Hungarian hands; Warsaw capitulated to the invaders early in August. In September Vilna was captured and Riga was threatened. Grand Duke Nicholas was relieved of the Russian command and transferred to the Caucasus, where he gave a good account of himself. The czar assumed nominal command on the east front, with General Russky as chief of staff.

Russia's forces fought the Turks successfully during the period covered by the above record, clearing them out of the Caucasus and opening the way for further successes in 1916.

The Dardanelles Campaign. Turkey could not spare troops to assist Austria against Russia, for the allies inaugurated a vigorous offensive at the Dardanelles which required all its power to resist. In December, 1914, a great

fleet of France and Britain attacked the Turkish forts at the entrance from the Mediterranean Sea and in ten weeks captured them. Landing of troops followed, but this was accompanied with heavy losses, both of infantry and of five battleships, the latter sunk by torpedoes. Only until the early days of 1916 did the effort to crumble Turkish opposition continue. On January 9 the last of the allied forces retreated. The failure of the campaign had far-reaching effects; not only did it secure Constantinople in Turkish possession, free from danger of a second attack, but allied prestige was lowered throughout the Balkan countries.

Serbia Overwhelmed. Immediately after the declaration of war against Serbia by AustriaHungary the latter country organized an offensive which should overrun the little country. Belgrade, just across the Danube, on the border, was captured by overwhelming forces on December 2, but two weeks later, in a strong counter-offensive, Serbia regained its capital. Several Austrian commanders were retired in disgrace because of their failure to subdue the Serbs. After this success Serbia's army was attacked by typhus fever, and its fighting power was slight for the next six months. In June, 1915, the central powers moved troops from the eastern front and were joined by Bulgaria, which had entered the war on their side, and the subjugation of Serbia was again attempted.

Not only was it deemed necessary to punish Serbia for the causes which precipitated the war, but it was important to open a direct road through to Constantinople to give aid to the Turks, who were demanding help. Such an open road would make it possible, also, to exert strong pressure upon other Balkan states and influence them against joining the allies. Besides, success in this direction would make possible a campaign against the Suez Canal.

ties, but unavailingly. By December all of Serbia except the southern border and a narrow

strip in the west was in the hands of the conquerors.

In the West. Before the end of the year 1915 the central powers made a bid for peace, based "on the map of Europe." This meant that they should keep what they had taken by the sword. The allies in the early days of the year rejected the German assumption of victory, with the result that during the year the most

sanguinary conflicts thus far in the war occurred.

The outstanding event, with which probably no other single occurrence in military history can compare, was the battle for the possession of Verdun, the central gateway to Paris. The German crown prince commanded the army

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which began the assault. From February 22 until near the close of September the battle raged, with practically no intermission. Had the Germans battered their way through the victory would have added mightily to German prestige, but the effort failed utterly, after costing more than half a million dead and countless others wounded. France suffered very severely in losses of men; indeed, one of the reasons for the persistent effort was to "bleed France white," but at the end the courage of the republic was undaunted, and its hopes bright. The failure of the gigantic effort began to undermine the German morale, according to stories told later by German prisoners in allied camps. The Germans had been able to advance four miles in six months, but they were yet three miles from nearly ruined Verdun when cessation of their attacks acknowledged defeat.

Particularly bitter were the assaults and counter-assaults around such never-to-be-forgotten spots as Fort Douamont, Le Mort Homme (Dead Man's Hill), Haucourt, Bethencourt, Fort Vaux, Hill 304 and Hill 305.

While the attention of the world was cen- . tered on Verdun the allies were preparing a great offensive farther north, along the Somme. It began in July, and proved to be a disaster for German arms. The allies by this time could meet the enemy on even terms with respect to artillery, and with their great guns they destroyed miles of trench works of steel and concrete, on which months of effort had been spent. The British alone fired more than 500,000 shells a day, along a front of twentyfive miles. Day after day until December, when weather conditions stopped the fighting, the allies pushed the Germans back; they captured the ruined sites of village after village, penetrated second and third line trenches, and took elevated positions which gave their artillery more certain range. The Germans fought as stubbornly; sometimes counter-attacks regained ground, only to be lost again later. The campaign was so disastrous to the Germans that Von Hindenburg moved his whole forces back to new lines already preparedbut this did not occur until early in 1917.

In this year (1916), from April 24 to May 1, occurred a revolt in Ireland which threatened to result seriously. Sir Roger Casement, who had held important British posts of honor, was captured while endeavoring to smuggle German arms into Ireland. He was tried by court-martial, and shot; six other leaders in the insur

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rection also suffered the death penalty, and what had at first appeared a very dangerous situation ended ingloriously. Rioting in Dublin destroyed considerable government property.

In the East. Russia had taken advantage of the winter months to organize more thoroughly and to acquire vast quantities of munitions. In June the czar's armies began an offensive on a large scale near the southern end of their 1,100-mile battle line. The Austrians could not resist the onslaught, and before winter Russia had overrun the crownland of Bukowina, and it again threatened Lemberg. The Austrians were driven again into the Carpathian Mountains.

On the Italian Front. In May Italy was ready to take the field against Austria-Hungary. For two months small engagements occurred on many parts of the whole 320-mile front; in August remarkable headway was made by Italy along the Isonzo River and plateau. The culmination of the year's work was the capture of Goritz. Before winter stopped operations plans were under way to attack Trieste, the important Austrian port on the Adriatic.

Rumania Crushed. Rumania elected to join the allies. In addressing the world on its decision it complained that the safety of the country was threatened by Austria-Hungary, whose national aspirations endangered its future and imperiled its people.

The

Immediately after its declaration of war its armies invaded Transylvania with success. passes in the Carpathians were seized and strengthened. Austria-Hungary was not in position at the time to retaliate, owing to its severe defeats at the hands of the Russians. The punishment of Rumania was therefore assigned to Germany and Bulgaria. Under Von Mackensen and Von Falkenhayn, their armies swept straight through to the Black Sea. They captured Bucharest, and about half of the country, with rich resources in foodstuffs, fell into the hands of the conquerors. Most of the Rumanian army escaped, and gave a good account of itself later.

On Other Fronts. Earlier in this record it was stated that on January 9, 1916, the Gallipoli peninsula was abandoned by the allies. This disaster was the more distressing to contemplate after it was learned that had they persisted in their efforts a few more days they would have won their objective, for Turkey was at the point of abandoning the defense.

In Armenia Grand Duke Nicholas conducted a successful Russian campaign. His most notable deeds were the capture of Erzerum, Trebizond, Erzingan and Baiburt. Turkey made a number of attempts to cross the Syrian Desert and strike at the Suez Canal. The difficulties encountered were too great; some troops reached the canal, but the British drove them back. It was of vital importance to the latter to protect this waterway.

The situation in Greece caused grave concern on both sides, but no climax was reached. Serbian forces, driven out of their home land, took refuge on Grecian islands for reorganization, and then were transferred to Saloniki, which the allies occupied. The king of Greece, brother-in-law of the German kaiser, maintained a questionable neutrality, but the Venizelos faction, favorable to the allies, joined in fighting against Bulgaria. Greece had been