As to the method of taking the votes, e.g., by calling over the roll and recording the vote of each member.

As to allowing certain intervals to elapse between each reading of a measure, and for preventing the hurried passage of bills at the end of the session.

As to including in a bill only one subject, and expressing that subject in the title of the bill. Against reenacting, or amending, or incorporating,

any former Act by reference to its title merely, without setting out its contents.

Where statutes have been passed by a legislature upon a prohibited subject, or where the prescribed forms have been transgressed or omitted, the statute will be held void so far as inconsistent with the Constitution.

Debates in these bodies are seldom well reported, and sometimes not reported at all. One result is that the conduct of members escapes the scrutiny of their constituents; a better one that speeches are generally short and practical, the motive for rhetorical displays being absent. If a man does not make a reputation for oratory, he may for quick good sense and business habits. However, so much of the real work is done in committees that talent for intrigue or "management" usually counts for more than debating power.

CHAPTER VI.

THE STATE EXECUTIVE

The executive department in a State consists of a governor (in all the States), a lieutenant-governor (in thirty-two), and of various minor officials. The governor, who, under the earlier Constitutions of most of the original thirteen States, was chosen by

the legislature, is now always elected by the people, and by the same suffrage, practically universal, as the legislature. He is elected directly, not, as under the Federal Constitution, by a college of electors. His term of office is, in twenty States, four years; in one State (New Jersey), three years; in twenty-two States, two years; and in two States (Massachusetts and Rhode Island), one year. His salary varies from $10,000 in New York and Pennsylvania to $1,000 in Michigan. Some States limit his reeligibility.

The earlier Constitutions of the original States (except South Carolina) associated with the governor an executive council, but these councils have long since disappeared, except in Massachusetts, Maine, and North Carolina, and the governor remains in solitary glory the official head and representative of the majesty of the State. His powers are, however, in ordinary times more specious than solid, and only one of them is of great practical value. He is charged with the duty of seeing that the laws of the State are faithfully administered by all officials and the judgments of the courts carried out. He has, in nearly all States, the power of reprieving and pardoning offenders, but in some this does not extend to treason or to conviction on impeachment, and in some, other authorities are associated with him in the exercise of this prerogative. He is commanderin-chief of the armed forces of the State, can embody the militia, repel invasion, suppress insurrection.

He appoints some few officials, but seldom to high posts, and in many States his nominations require the approval of the State Senate. Patronage, in which the President of the United States finds one of his most desired and most disagreeable functions is, in the case of a State governor, of slight value, because the State offices are not numerous, and the

more important and lucrative ones are filled by the direct election of the people. He has the right of requiring information from the executive officials, and is usually bound to communicate to the legislature his views regarding the condition of the commonwealth. He may also recommend measures to them, but does not frame and present bills. In a few States he is directed to present estimates. His veto may be overridden by the legislatures in manner already indicated, but generally kills the measure, because if the bill is a bad one, it calls the attention of the people to the fact and frightens the legislature, whereas if the bill be an unobjectionable one, the governor's motive for vetoing it is probably a party motive, and the requisite overriding majority can seldom be secured in favor of a bill which either party dislikes. The use of his veto is, in ordinary times, a governor's most serious duty, and chiefly by his discharge of it is he judged.

Although much less sought after and prized than in "the days of the Fathers," when a State governor sometimes refused to yield precedence to the President of the United States, the governorship is still, particularly in New England and in New York and other great States, a post of some dignity, and affords an opportunity for the display of character and talents. During the Civil War, when each governor was responsible for enrolling, equipping, officering, and sending forward troops from his State, and when it rested with him to repress any attempts at disorder, much depended on his energy, popularity, and loyalty. In some States men still talk of the "war governors" of those days as heroes to whom the North owed deep gratitude. And since the Pennsylvanian riots of 1877, and those which have subsequently occurred in Cincinnati and Chicago, have shown that tumults may suddenly grow to serious

proportions, it has in many States become important to have a man of prompt decision and fearlessness in the office which issues orders to the State militia. In most States there is an elective lieutenant-governor who steps into the governor's place if it becomes vacant, and who is usually also ex officio President of the Senate, as the Vice-President of the United States is of the Federal Senate. Otherwise he is an insignificant personage, though sometimes a member of some of the executive boards.

The names and duties of the other officers vary from State to State. The most frequent are a secretary of state (in all States), a treasurer (in all), an attorney-general, a comptroller, an auditor, a superintendent of public instruction. In some States we find a State engineer, a surveyor, a superintendent of prisons, etc. It has already been observed that many States have also various bureaus and boards of commissioners. Most of these officials are in nearly all States elected by the people at the general State election. Sometimes, however, they, or some of them, are either chosen by the legislature, or, more rarely, appointed by the governor, whose nomination usually requires the confirmation of the Senate. Their salaries, which of course vary with the importance of the office and the parsimony of the State, seldom exceed $5,000 per annum and are usually smaller. So, too, the length of the term of office varies. It is often the same as that of the governor and with few exceptions does not exceed four years. Holding independently of the governor, and responsible neither to him nor to the legislature, but to the people, the State officials do not take generally his orders, and need not regard his advice. Each has his own department to administer, and as there is little or nothing political in the work, a general agreement in policy, such as must exist between

the Federal President and his ministers, is not required. Policy rests with the legislature, whose statutes, prescribing minutely the action to be taken by the officials, leave little room for executive discretion.

Of the subordinate civil service of a State there is little to be said. It is not large, for the sphere of administrative action which remains to the State between the Federal government on the one side, and the county, city, and township governments on the other, is not wide. It is ill-paid, for the State legislatures are parsimonious. It is seldom well manned, for able men have no inducement to enter it and the so-called "spoils system," which has been hitherto applied to State no less than to Federal offices, makes places the reward for political work, i.e., electioneering and wire-pulling. Efforts are now being made in some States to introduce reforms similar to those begun in the Federal administration, whereby certain walks of the civil service shall be kept out of politics, at least so far as to secure competent men against dismissal on party grounds. Such reforms would in no case apply to the higher officials chosen by the people, for they are always elected for short terms and on party lines.

Every State except Oregon provides for the impeachment of executive officers for grave offenses. In all save two the State House of Representatives is the impeaching body; and in all but Nebraska the State Senate sits as the tribunal, a two-thirds majority being generally required for a conviction. Impeachments are rare in practice.

There is also in many States a power of removing officials, sometimes by the vote of the legislature, sometimes by the governnor on the address of both Houses, or by the governor alone, or with the concurrence of the Senate. Such removals must of