it is apparent, that it was first brought forward in connexion with the power to lay taxes; that it was originally adopted, as a qualification or limitation of the objects of that power; and that it was not discussed, as an independent power, or as a general phrase pointing to, or connected with, the subsequent enumerated powers. There was another amendment proposed, which would have created a general power to this effect; but it was never adopted, and seems silently to have been abandoned.1

§ 927. Besides; it is impracticable in grammatical propriety to separate the different parts of the latter clause. The words are, "to pay the debts, and pro"vide for the common defence," &c. "To pay the "debts" cannot be construed, as an independent power; for it is connected with the other by the copulative "and." The payment of the antecedent debts of the United States was already provided for by a distinct article; and the power to pay future debts must necessarily be implied to the extent, to which they could constitutionally be contracted; and would fall within the purview of the enumerated power to pass all laws necessary and proper to carry the powers given by the constitution into effect. If, then, these words were and ought to be read, as a part of the preceding power to lay taxes, and in connexion with it, (as this historical review establishes beyond any reasonable controversy,) they draw the other words, "and provide for the common "defence," &c. with them into the same connexion. On the other hand, if this connexion be once admitted, it would be almost absurd to contend, that "to pay "the debts" of the United States was a general phrase,

1 Journ. of Convention, 277.

2 Journ. of Convention, 291. See also the Constitution, art. 6.

which pointed to the subsequent enumerated powers, and was qualified by them; and yet, as a part of the very clause, we are not at liberty to disregard it. The truth is, (as the historical review also proves,) that after it had been decided, that a positive power to pay the public debts should be inserted in the constitution, and a desire had been evinced to introduce some restriction upon the power to lay taxes, in order to allay jealousies and suppress alarms, it was (keeping both objects in view) deemed best to append the power to pay the public debts to the power to lay taxes; and then to add other terms, broad enough to embrace all the other purposes contemplated by the constitution. Among these none were more appropriate, than the words, "common defence and general welfare," found in the articles of confederation, and subsequently with marked emphasis introduced into the preamble of the constitution. To this course no opposition was made, because it satisfied those, who wished to provide positively for the public debts, and those, who wished to have the power of taxation co-extensive with all constitutional objects and powers. In other words, it conformed to the spirit of that resolution of the convention, which authorized congress "to legislate, in all cases, for the "general interests of the Union." 1

1 Journal of Convention, 181, 182, 208.- The letter of Mr. Madison to Mr. Stevenson of 27th November, 1830, contains an historical examination of the origin and progress of this clause substantially the same, as that given above. After perusing it, I perceive no reason to change the foregoing reasoning. In one respect, Mr. Madison seems to labour under a mistake, viz. in supposing, that the proposition of the 25th of August, to add to the power to lay taxes, as previously amended on the 23d of August, the words, " for the payment of the debts and for defraying the expenses, that shall be incurred for the common defence and general welfare," was rejected on account of the generality of the

§ 928. Having thus disposed of the question, what is the true interpretation of the clause, as it stands in the text of the constitution, and ascertained, that the power

phraseology. The known opinions of some of the states, which voted in the negative (Connecticut alone voted in the affirmative) shows, that it could not have been rejected on this account. It is most probable, that it was rejected, because it contained a restriction upon the power to tax; for this power appears at first to have passed without opposition in its general form.* It may be acceptable to the general reader to have the remarks of this venerable statesman in his own words, and therefore they are here inserted. After giving an historical review of the origin and progress of the whole clause, he says,

"A special provision in this mode could not have been necessary for the debts of the new congress; for a power to provide money, and a power to perform certain acts, of which money is the ordinary and appropriate means, must, of course, carry with them, a power to pay the expense of performing the acts. Nor was any special provision for debts proposed, till the case of the revolutionary debts was brought into view; and it is a fair presumption, from the course of the varied propositions, which have been noticed, that but for the old debts, and their association with the terms, 'common defence and general welfare,' the clause would have remained, as reported in the first draft of a constitution, expressing generally a power in congress to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises;' without any addition of the phrase 'to provide for the common defence and general welfare.' With this addition, indeed, the language of the clause being in conformity with that of the clause in the articles of confederation, it would be qualified, as in those articles, by the specification of powers subjoined to it. But there is sufficient reason to suppose, that the terms in question would not have been intro_ duced, but for the introduction of the old debts, with which they happened to stand in a familiar, though inoperative, relation. Thus introduced, however, they pass undisturbed through the subsequent stages of the constitution.

"If it be asked, why the terms 'common defence and general welfare,' if not meant to convey the comprehensive power, which, taken literally, they express, were not qualified and explained by some reference to the particular power subjoined, the answer is at hand, that although it might easily have been done, and experience shows it might be well, if it had been done, yet the omission is accounted for by an inattention to the phraseology, occasioned, doubtless, by identity with the harmless character attached to it in the instrument, from which it was borrowed.

66 But may it not be asked with infinitely more propriety, and without the possibility of a satisfactory answer, why, if the terms were meant to

* Journal of Convention, p. 220, 257, 284, 291.

of taxation, though general, as to the subjects, to which it may be applied, is yet restrictive, as to the purposes, for which it may be exercised; it next becomes matter

embrace, not only all the powers particularly expressed, but the indefinite power, which has been claimed under them, the intention was not so declared; why, on that supposition, so much critical labour was employed in enumerating the particular powers, and in defining and limiting their extent ?

"The variations and vicissitudes in the modification of the clause, in which the terms 'common defence and general welfare' appear, are remarkable; and to be no otherwise explained, than by differences of opinion, concerning the necessity or the form of a constitutional provision for the debts of the revolution; some of the members, apprehending improper claims for losses by depreciated bills of credit; others, an evasion of proper claims, if not positively brought within the authorized functions of the new government; and others again, considering the past debts of the United States, as sufficiently secured by the principle, that no change in the government could change the obligations of the nation. Besides the indications in the Journal, the history of the period sanctions this explanation.

66

But, it is to be emphatically remarked, that in the multitude of motions, propositions, and amendments, there is not a single one having reference to the terms 'common defence and general welfare,' unless we were so to understand the proposition containing them, made on August 25th, which was disagreed to by all the states, except one.

"The obvious conclusion, to which we are brought, is, that these terms, copied from the articles of confederation, were regarded in the new, as in the old instrument, merely as general terms, explained and limited by the subjoined specifications, and therefore requiring no critical attention or studied precaution.

"If the practice of the revolutionary congress be pleaded in opposition to this view of the case, the plea is met by the notoriety, that on several accounts, the practice of that body is not the expositor of the 'articles of confederation.' These articles were not in force, till they were finally ratified by Maryland in 1781. Prior to that event, the power of congress was measured by the exigencies of the war, and derived its sanction from the acquiescence of the states. After that event, habit, and a continued expediency, amounting often to a real or apparent necessity, prolonged the exercise of an undefined authority, which was the more readily overlooked, as the members of the body held their seats during pleasure, as its acts, particularly after the failure of the bills of credit, depended for their efficacy on the will of the states; and as its general impotency became manifest. Examples of departure from the prescribed rule are too well known to require proof. The

of inquiry, what were the reasons, for which this power was given, and what were the objections, to which it was deemed liable.

one.

case of the old bank of North America might be cited, as a memorable The incorporating ordinance grew out of the inferred necessity of such an institution to carry on the war, by aiding the finances, which were starving under the neglect or inability of the states to furnish their assessed quotas. Congress was at the time so much aware of the deficient authority, that they recommended it to the state legislatures to pass laws giving due effect to the ordinance, which was done by Pennsylvania and several other states.

"Mr. Wilson, justly distinguished for his intellectual powers, being deeply impressed with the importance of a bank at such a crisis, published a small pamphlet, entitled Considerations on the Eank of North America,' in which he endeavoured to derive the power from the nature of the Union, in which the colonies were declared and became independent states; and also from the tenour of the articles of confederation' themselves. But what is particularly worthy of notice is, that with all his anxious search in those articles for such a power, he never glanced at the terms, 'common defence and general welfare,' as a source of it. He rather chose to rest the claim on a recital in the text, 'that for the more convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed to meet in congress,' which he said implied, that the United States had general rights, general powers, and general obligations, not derived from any particular state, nor from all the particular states, taken separately, but resulting from the union of the whole;' these general powers, not being controlled by the article declaring, that each state retained all powers not granted by the articles, because the individual states never possessed, and could not retain, a general power over the others.'

"The authority and argument here resorted to, if proving the ingenuity and patriotic anxiety of the author, on one hand, show sufficiently on the other, that the terms, 'common defence and general welfare,' could not, according to the known acceptation of them, avail his object.

"That the terms in question were not suspected in the convention, which formed the constitution, of any such meaning, as has been constructively applied to them; may be pronounced with entire confidence. For it exceeds the possibility of belief, that the known advocates in the convention for a jealous grant, and cautious definition of federal powers, should have silently permitted the introduction of words or phrases, in a sense rendering fruitless the restrictions and definitions elaborated by them.

66 Consider, for a moment, the immeasurable difference between the constitution, limited in its powers to the enumerated objects; and ex