Inscription which we gave, as translated from the Greek, No. cvIII. The reader will observe how differently the names of the same person appear in his native language, and in the Greek; together with the inferences arising from the same inscription being in both languages on the same monument. "Jareus, son of Halibeus, son of Jareus, dedicated this elevated monument of silver, and its ornaments (prepared at his own expense), to Aglibolus and Malachbelus, in consequence of a vow he had made, when in great fear and danger, and for the safety (or health) of himself and his family, in the month Shebat, in the year 547." This" elevated monument” is what the Hebrews, we presume, would call " a hand :" vide No. ccxvm. There are other particulars on medals, &c. of this country, well worth notice.

*** It may not be amiss to add, that since Mr. Swinton's days, considerable progress has been made in the study of Palmyrene antiquities and inscriptions; also, that the Punic inscription found at Malta has been the subject of a particular essay by Sir William Drummond. London, 1810. His version differs considerably from that of his learned predecessor.

No. CCCCXCI. SWORDS, &c. FIGURES OF SPEECH FROM.

METAPHORICAL Figures of Speech may arise wholly from poetic imagination and fancy, combining conceptions of non-existent things, into imagery, for the purpose of force and vigour of language; but they often have a greater foundation in fact than appears at first sight; either they have such a foundation, or they have had it. Circumstances may have occurred which gave occasion to such or such expressions, whose significant import has preserved them in use, after their original causes or occasions have been lost and forgotten.

In

Though "ill words break no bones," yet we use the metaphor of "piercing words;" and we understand Hamlet very well, when he says, "I will speak daggers.' like manner the Psalmist says, "The words of his enemies are drawn Swords," lv. 21; and lix. 7. "Swords are in their lips; their tongue is a sharp Sword." (vide Prov. xii. 18.) We do not know whether the reader has taken the same offence as ourselves, at seeing this Figure of Speech realized in picture; so that, when it is said of our Lord, Rev. i. 16. (evidently in a poetical manner), that "out of his mouth went a sharp two-edged Sword," the painter has thought proper to depict a tongue of immense length, of the nature and appearance of a Sword. We say, having been offended at this, and similar representations, we were somewhat startled, on perusing a passage in Thevenot, Part i. p. 229: "The galliot being out a cruising, met with a Turkish galliot, and having laid her athwart hauze, they met with a stout resistance. The Turks who were on board of her, having a naked Sword between their teeth, and a musket in their hands, beat off their adversaries."

How this naked Sword was used in combat does not appear; but if this ever were a part of a military custom, then the metaphor of a Sword, issuing from the mouth, seems as if it might be justified by matter of fact. And this expression may rank among those which have originated from some analogous incident.

There is a due medium between being over-fastidious in criticising works of art, and accepting every crude attempt at impossibilities with satisfaction, or passing it over with indifference; but we think we have seen so many false narrations (that is, representations) adopted in the arts of design, and among judicious artists too, whose influence has considerable extent, that the public has been misled, to its serious injury; for indeed it is a serious injury when events of sacred history have been exposed to 5 F

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censure, not from the language of their original authors, from facts truly connected with the original narration, but from such additions, caprices, and perversions, as genius, unguided by accurate information, has ventured first to suggest, and at length to indulge and establish.

Precisely the same thought arises from the use of arrows, which we are told by Mr. Mungo Park (Travels in Africa, p. 99.), are held in the mouth, ready to be used in the bow, at an instant." The negroes. . . . each of them took from his quiver a handful of arrows, and putting two between his teeth, and one in his bow, waved to us with his hand, to keep at a distance." See now, how easily "bitter words " may be compared to arrows, as Psalm lxiv. 3; how the "teeth of the sons of men may be spears and arrows," as Psalm lvii. 4; how "their tongue is an arrow shot out," Jer. ix. 8; how "the tongue that beareth false witness is a sharp arrow." Prov. xxv. 18. These metaphors never were difficult, because they were considered as comparisons; but now they assume a relation to positive fact, yet without losing any of their energy as comparisons.

Will this principle illustrate that sufficiently obscure passage, Psalm cxx: "Deliver my soul, O Lord, from lying lips, from a deceitful tongue. What shall be given unto thee, or what shall be done to thee, thou false tongue? Sharp arrows of the mighty, with coals of juniper?" These latter words are usually understood to imply a punishment. "Thou shalt be pierced with arrows; thou shalt be burned with coals of juniper-wood," which have the reputation of long continuing the fire that consumes them, of long holding it in vigour.

But, may we take it in another view? "Thou false tongue! thou art comparable, in respect of piercing, to the sharpest [poisoned?] arrows of the mighty: thou art comparable, in respect of the length of time to which thou holdest thy implacability, to coals of juniper-wood itself, famous as that wood is for its long maintenance of fire without being consumed. Thou retainest thine anger for ever." This certainly makes a good sense, is agreeable to the Hebrew, and gives great spirit to the following interjection: "Alas for me! inasmuch as I wonder in Mesech! as I dwell in the tents of Kedar!" That the tongue might readily be compared to such sharp arrows, we have seen above; and for the retention of fire, when otherwise it might cease, vide No. CXXVII.

TAHASH.

No. CCCCXCII. SEAL-SKINS FOR COVERING. AMONG those inadvertent renderings, which, for want of better information on oriental natural history, have been adopted in our public translation, that of "badgers' skins" for the covering of the tabernacle (Exod. xxv. 5. et. al.), and for shoes (Ezek. xvi. 10.), has been liable to great exception. The badger is an inhabitant of cold countries, certainly not of Arabia, and is rare, even where it breeds; as in England: who has ever seen, at one time, Skins enough to cover a trunk, much less a large tent; even supposing the skin were proper for that purpose? Whereas, it appears by Exod. xxxv. 23. that several persons in the Israelitish caravan had Tahash Skins in their possession at the same time, so that the animal was not scarce. Not to question whether the Skin, if a rarity, would have been placed outside of the tabernacle to defend the whole structure.

The ancient versions, for the most part, took the word Tahash to signify a colour, a violet colour, to which the rams' Skins were dyed; and for this opinion Bochart contends: but the Rabbins insist on its being an animal; and Aben Ezra thinks it

to be of the bull kind: some animal which is thick and fat: and in this sense the word appears to be the same as the Arabic Dahash, fat, oily.

The conjecture, then, of those who refer the Tahash to the Seal, is every way credible; as in our own island the Seal is famous for its fat or oil, which, in default of whale oil, is used for similar purposes. Moreover, Seal-Skins, on account of their durability, are used to cover trunks and boxes, to defend them from the weather; and as the Skin of the Tahash was used for making shoes (Ezek. xvi. 10.), so the Skin of the Seal may be tanned into as good leather as calf-Skin itself: and (we believe) is known in the leather trade by the name of "Dog's-Skin." [Perhaps, q. “sea-dog's skin?"]

It remains, then, to be proved that an animal, fit for the purpose, was readily procurable by the Israelites in the wilderness; for this we quote Thevenot (p. 166.), who, being at Tor, a port on the Red Sea, says, "But they could not furnish me with any thing of a certain fish, which they call a SEA-MAN. [This name seems to have misled Linnæus, who ranks it homo marinus, Trichekus; but the Skin of this fish is too hard and unpliable for our present purposes.] However, I got the hand of one since. THIS FISH IS TAKEN IN THE RED SEA, about little isles, that are close by Tor. It is a great, strong fish, and hath nothing extraordinary but two hands, which are indeed like the hands of a man, saving that the fingers are joined together with a Skin like the foot of a goose; but the Skin of the fish is like the Skin of a wild goat, or chamois. When they spy that fish, they strike him on the back with harping irons, as they do whales, and so kill him. They use the Skin of it for making bucklers, which are musket proof"

Whether this be a species of Seal must be left undetermined; as nothing is said of its coming ashore, or being amphibious; nevertheless, it may be the Tahash of the Hebrews. Niebuhr says (p. 157, Fr. edit.), " A merchant of Abushahr, called Dahash that fish which the captains of English vessels called porpoise, and the Germans seahog, or dolphin. In my voyage from Maskat to Abushahr, I saw a prodigious quantity together, near Râs Mussendom, who all were going the same way, and seemed to swim with great vehemence."

These testimonies inform us, 1. That an animal is still called Dahash in Arabia. 2. That it is very numerous. 3. That its Skin is like that of a wild goat, or chamois, consequently fit for being dressed and manufactured. 4. It is a fat fish, or else it could not require the harping iron, or be called the porpoise, which we suppose it resembles, but is not truly that fish. 5. The Skin is used for bucklers, and is musket-proof, which explains what Michaelis alludes to, when he says, quoting Rau [Dissertatio de iis quæ Israelitæ ex Arabia petierunt extruendo Tabernaculo], that the Skins of these animals were made into shoes, because of their softness; but they were used, also, to cover cabins, huts, &c. because they were thought to be a protection against thunder. We shall merely add, from a note of Buffon, which he extracts from Charlevoix, the uses to which Seal-Skins may be applied. Formerly a great quantity of Seal-Skins were made into muffs; but that fashion is now over. Their chief use is now to cover trunks and boxes. When they are tanned, they have nearly the same grain as morocco; they are not so fine, but they do not wrinkle so easily, and they keep their freshness longer. Very good shoes and boots are made of them, which effectually keep out water. Seats also are covered with them, of which the covering outlasts the wood." These properties render Seal-Skins very fit to cover the tabernacle; and Dr. Geddes is laudably correct in adopting this rendering. Vide TANNIM, and PLATE CLXII.

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No. CCCCXCIII. SHADE ENJOYED IN THE EAST.

IT is a very customary, and a very desirable thing in the East, to eat under the shade of trees; and this situation the inhabitants seem to prefer, to taking their repasts in their tents or dwellings: so De la Roque tells us (p. 203.); "We did not arrive at the foot of the mountain till after sun-set: and it was almost night when we entered the plain; but as it was full of villages, mostly inhabited by Maronites, we entered into the first we came to, to pass the night there. It was the priest of the place who wished to receive us: he gave us a supper under the trees, before his little dwelling. As we were at table, there came by a stranger, wearing a white turban, who, after having saluted the company, sat himself down to the table, without ceremony; ate with us during some time, and thus went away, repeating several times the name of God. They told us it was some traveller who, no doubt, stood in need of refreshment, and who had profited by the opportunity, according to the custom of the East, which is to exercise hospitality at all times, and toward all persons."

The reader will be pleased to see the ancient hospitality of the East still maintained, and even a stranger profiting by an opportunity of supplying his wants. It reminds us of the guests of Abraham (Gen. chap. xviii.), of the conduct of Job (chap. xxxi. 17.), and especially, perhaps, of that frankness with which the apostles of Christ were to enter into a man's house after a salutation, and there to continue "eating and drinking such things as were set before them," Luke x. 7. Such behaviour would be considered as extremely intrusive, and indeed insupportable, among ourselves; but the maxims of the East would qualify that, as they do many other customs, by local proprieties, on which we are incompetent to determine.

No. CCCCXCIV. SAMIEL, OR HOT WIND.

WE had occasion, in No. IV. to consider some of the effects of the Samiel, or Simoom; but though we found it was occasionally fatal, yet we produced no instance of its deadly influence extending over any great space of country, or destroying any great number of persons. This deficiency may be partly supplied by the following informnation from Thevenot (Part ii. p. 57.): "This year (1665.), in the month of July, there died in Bassora, of that wind called Samiel, FOUR THOUSAND people in three weeks time." [Burckhardt has lately questioned the truth of such assertions; but, may not this Wind have different powers in different districts?]

If such be the effect of this seemingly casual visitation, what might not this extensive and mortal meteor produce, when invigorated and directed by an especial agent of Providence?

No. CCCCXCV. OF SERPENT WORSHIP.

WHOEVER has considered the subject, though but with moderate attention, must have wondered at the very general, indeed the most universal, spread of the Worship of the Serpent. The reflection has occasionally been suggested by men of learning; yet no one has done justice to the inquiry; they have wished for it, yet have declined to undertake it. It was our design to have entered somewhat freely into this subject; but time and place, with other considerations, not under our own control, forbid us.

The reader may have remarked, that, among the eleven kinds of Serpents enumerated in the article SERPENT in the Dictionary, the name of that which is usually understood to have tempted Eve, does not occur. Is then Nachash (the name given to the Tempter-Serpent) a general term for this class of reptiles? or, is it capable of some other meaning? and what is that meaning?

One should have supposed that the entire brood of the Serpent would have been execrated, and abhorred by all mankind; and that the mere proposal to worship this reptile would have raised the detestation of the whole human race; but fact justifies us in saying, that no kind of Worship has been more popular. How can this be accounted for?

Perhaps a dissertation on this subject should consider, 1. The Serpent as denoting or producing evil. 2. The Serpent as denoting or producing good; which, contradictory as it may appear, yet is founded on fact. 3. The Serpent as denoting a family or nation; and 4. The Serpent as denoting a being of supernatural powers. We shall just advert to these distinctions by way of essay, not of determination.

No. CCCCXCVI. THE EVIL SERPENT.

THE Serpent tribe, possessing the most active powers of destruction in that venom which Providence has given them for their security, has been considered as a source of evil, or as producing calamity. This is so well known, that we shall merely hint at instances. In India the destroying power, or death, is signified by the Serpent. [Vide PLATE XXI.: BAAL SHALISHA, No. 8.] In classic antiquity, the giants who attempted to scale Heaven are figured as half Serpents; and in the northern mythology, Lok, the genius of evil, is styled "the father of the great Serpent; the father of death; the adversary, the accuser; the deceiver of the gods," &c. Northern Antiq. vol. ii. p. 190. The reader will observe the coincidence of these titles with those of the Satan of Scripture. Scripture descriptions of the Serpent are notoriously applicable to a producer of evil.

No. CCCCXCVII. THE GOOD SERPENT.

THE Serpent has always been admired for its motion: possessing neither hands nor feet, nor other exterior members adapted for making progress, yet is its action agile, speedy, and even rapid: it springs, leaps, and bounds, or climbs and glides, not merely with ease, but with alacrity. Solomon observes this, in Prov. xxx. 19. and others have equally remarked it, as exciting surprise and wonder. The Serpent, also, sheds its skin yearly, and after this mutation seems, by the splendour of its colours, and the vivacity of its motions, to have acquired new life.

The Serpent was, and still is domesticated, in a variety of instances, and in many places. At this day he securely enters the dwellings of the natives of Eastern India; and the ladies of Western Africa carry him in their bosoms. It is true, the Serpent tribe divides into those which are harmless, and those which are malignant; but the malignant in India, at least, enjoy equal privileges with the harmless. Pausanias says, "All the Dragons [dragons are large Serpents], and particularly that species which is of the clearest yellow, are esteemed sacred to Esculapius, and are familiar with mankind,” lib. ii. cap. 28. Pliny also speaks of the Esculapian Snake, which is commonly fed, and resident in houses, &c. lib. xxix. cap. 4. Esculapius was adored in Epidaurus under the form of a Serpent; under which form he is said to have been brought to Rome, A. U. C. 463. Vide also Ovid, Met. lib. xv. 630: Livy, lib. x.; Val. Max. lib. i. 8. Lampridius, in the Life of Heliogabalus, writes, that the Egyptians had a small Serpent which they called Agathodemonas, that is, "good genius:" as Servius notes on Virgil Georg. iii. [Vide PLATE LXIX. Nos. 20, 21.] Eusebius says the same of the Phoenicians, Prep. Ev. lib. i. 7. It is usually thought that the Agathodemon of Egypt was named in Egyptian Cneph: and the worship of Cneph, or Cnephis, or Knuphis, was very prevalent in that country. The Hebrew