act as a deterrent. "The position of the labor leaders logically requires that all work outside of regular hours be abolished. This is in fact the desire of all the more progressive union men, and the desire which is almost universally expressed in the collective action of the organizations. When overtime becomes systematic, it is said, it does not give any actual increase of wages; the nominal regular wages are certain to be cut down so that the workman's earnings will be no greater than they would be if the normal day were not exceeded. Even temporary overtime is regarded as injurious to the interests of the workers as a whole. There is a tendency to increase the hours of labor when times are bad, and so to spread the interest on the cost of the plant over more hours of work. The result is that when social conditions cause less work than usual, of a certain kind, to be demanded, some men do more than usual of it. When there would be at the best an increase of UNEMPLOYMENT, unemployment is made greater yet by the overwork of those who are employed. Only a few unions have, however, felt themselves strong enough to forbid overtime absolutely." From the employer's point of view, "the fact of overtime tends to lessen the working pace in the normal hours; it increases FATIGUE and thus tends to emphasize all the consequences of fatigue irregular attendance, sickness, physical debility. It tends, when long pursued, to increase LABOR TURNOVER and to stimulate unrest." (See COMPENSATORY TIME; STRAIGHT TIME; TIME And a Half.)

Overwork. While difficult to define in a precise sense, this term commonly denotes any excessive demand upon the normal physical capacity of an individual worker. This demand may be inherent in the nature of the task, without regard to time; but it is much more often connected with the length of the working day or week. In any continuous task a point must necessarily be reached where the relative output per hour of an individual worker begins to decrease rapidly. Other things being equal, this decrease indicates a condition of FATIGUE, and fatigue is simply the evidence of overwork. Even though production be fairly uniform throughout theworking day and week, a point is reached during a term of years when the relative output takes a downward curve. In other words, the worker has reached an age-point when his physique is not equal to the demands of his task-he has begun to be overworked. The implications of overwork are of large importance in connection not merely with industrial production, but with good citizenship, family and home relationships, and social progress in general.

P

P. O. B. See PARTI OUVRIER BELGE.

Pacer or Pace-Maker. See SPEEDING UP.

Padrone System. In the early days of Italian IMMIGRATION, the padrone ("patron," "protector," "master") was an importer of CONTRACT LABOR. He engaged with the American manufacturer or contractor to supply cheap labor-mainly for construction work; and then in order to secure this labor himself went to Italy, made individual contracts with Italian laborers at a low rate, brought the laborers to this country, and sold their labor for several times its cost to him. This form of the padrone system has, however, entirely disappeared. The padrone system at present is strictly a system of "bossism," and the so-called padrone is known by the Italians themselves not as padrone but as "the boss." His business is to collect a gang of newly arrived laborers, to find work for them, and to continue with them at their place of work; but he is not their foreman and not their contractor. He acts, perhaps, as interpreter, but mainly as the proprietor of the shanty or boarding house in which they crowd together for the time being. His profit is partly in the commission which he receives from the employer, but mainly in the prices which he charges for food and lodging.

Pan-American Federation of Labor. Organized November, 1918, and composed of the labor movements of the United States of America, United States of Mexico, the States of Central and South America, and Canada. The objects of the Pan-American Federation of Labor are declared to be: "(1) The establishment of better conditions for the working people who emigrate from one country to another. (2) The establishment of a better understanding and relationship between the peoples of the Pan-American Republics. (3) To utilize every lawful and honorable means for the protection and promotion of the rights, the interests, and the welfare of the peoples of the Pan-American Republics. (4) To utilize every lawful and honorable means for the purpose of cultivating the most favor

able and friendly relations between the labor movements and peoples of the Pan-American Republics." The Federation maintains headquarters in Washington, and holds an annual congress.

Parasitic Industries. Those which depend for their labor supply upon "casuals," HOME WORKERS, and other unorganized laborers, particularly women and children, under wages and conditions far below the ordinary industrial standards. The employer in such an industry is clearly receiving a subsidy or bounty which gives his process an economic advantage over those worked by fully paid labor. The subsidy comes in part from society as a whole in the form of drafts upon its physical human resources, and in part from individuals-parents, husbands, etc.-who must make up the difference between the worker's wages and the amount necessary for his subsistence. (See SWEATING SYSTEM; SWEAT SHOP; SWEATER; LITTLE MASTER; HOME WORK; UNDER-EMPLOYMENT.)

Paris Internationale.

See INTERNATIONALE.

Parliament of Labor. See TRADES UNION CONGRESS.

Parliamentarism. With particular reference to the labor movement, the theory or method of improving working-class conditions by the election of working-class representatives to national legislative bodies. Although the two terms are often used interchangeably, parliamentarism is more properly only one form of

POLITICAL ACTION.

Parliamentary Committee, Trades Union Congress. See TRADES UNION CONGRESS.

Parliamentary Labor Party. Those members of the British Parliament, at present some sixty in number, who were elected or "returned" by labor constituencies, are collectively so called. The Parliamentary Labor Party is virtually the Parliamentary representation of the BRITISH LABOR PARTY.

Parlor Bolshevism. A term of derision often applied to the discussion and support of radical social theories on the part of those who belong to the intellectual or propertied classes, rather than to the working people. "Parlor socialism" is also used in a similar sense. (See BOLSHEVISM.)

Part Time. As distinguished from FULL TIME, this is less than the number of working hours which has been established as constituting the NORMAL DAY OR WEEK in a particular plant or industry.

Part-Time Schools. Special schools or classes for children and others who are industrially employed. The instruction may be wholly of an academic character, wholly of a vocational character, or a combination of both. The part-time school devoted wholly or mainly to general academic instruction is commonly known as a CONTINUATION SCHOOL. Part-time schools which place main emphasis upon VOCATIONAL EDUCATION are of two general types: (1) Those giving instruction in the particular trade or industry in which the pupils are employed-known as "trade extension schools"; and (2) those giving instruction to persons who wish to fit themselves for a particular trade or industry other than the one in which they are employed-known as "trade preparatory schools." The part-time school of whatever type may be a part of the general educational system, or it may be provided by an individual employer for the sole benefit of his own employees. Where it is a part of the public educational facilities, attendance is compulsory in some countries and in several states in this country, for a minimum number of hours, for children below a specified age limit; and such hours are usually counted as part of the time during which such children are legally permitted to work. While the terms "part-time school" and "continuation school" are often used indiscriminately or interchangeably, properly speaking the continuation school is merely one specific form of the part-time school. (See FORTBILDUNGSSCHULE.) Parteischule. See WORKING-CLASS EDUCATION.

Parti Ouvrier Belge (Belgian Labor Party). Because of the close-knit alliance between trade unionists, socialists, and cooperatives which it represents, the Belgian Labor Party (founded in 1885) is one of the most effective working-class organizations in Europe. In this organization, it has been remarked, "SOCIALISM Supplies the brain that directs, TRADE UNIONISM the weapons for the fight, and COOPERATION the sinews of war." The Labor Party is a national federation with thirty-two district organizations which cover the whole of Belgium. Membership is open to trade unions, cooperative societies, political organizations called "workers' leagues," communal socialist unions, and the political sections of friendly societies (mutualités). The complete establishment of socialism is the aim of the Party, which in 1920 had 540,000 members and seventy adherents in the national Chamber of Representatives. It is affiliated with the second INTERNATIONALE. (See COMMISSION SYNDICALE BELGE; BELGIAN TRADE UNIONS.)

Partial General Strike. See GENERAL STRIKE.

Particulars Clause. An important section of the British FACTORY AND WORKSHOP ACT of 1891 which provides, as regards textile manufactures, that the employer shall state in writing, before the job is begun, all the particulars (including the rate of payment) required for the precise computation of the workers' earnings. The clause has since been extended to cover a number of other PIECE WORK trades.

Partido Laborista Mexicano. The national Labor Party of Mexico, formed in March, 1920. It is composed of both city workers and farm laborers, and is organized in national, state, electoral district, and municipal units, with subcommittees for small towns. The party supports the CONFEDERACIÓN REGIONAL OBRERA MEXICANA (Mexican Regional Confederation of Labor), and endeavors to carry out that organization's programme in the political field.

Partido Socialista Obrero (Socialist Labor Party). See SPANISH LABOR MOVEMENT.

Partnering. See TEAM WORK.

Passive Resistance Strike. See HARTAL.

Passport Agreement, Japanese-American. See JAPANeseAMERICAN PASSPORT AGREEMENT.

Paternalism. A term derived from the Latin word pater, meaning "father." As most commonly used, it refers to the theory and practice of a government or of the ruling classes which attempt close control and supervision of the social and economic affairs of the people, in much the same manner that a father deals with his children. Two forms of paternalism, each in direct opposition to the other, should be carefully distinguished. One form is that which would trust the conduct of human affairs solely to the wisdom and beneficence of the possessing classes. "Just as the true solution of the problem of government was felt to consist in the training up of a wise, strong, and humane body of governors who would carry out with justice and selflessness the function with which they were entrusted, so the industrial problem would be solved only when the employers and the landlords understood that they owed a duty to the men of whom they were in charge. . . . The rich and the rulers must be converted by the teaching of the most enlightened among their number into an aristocracy of service." The second form is that represented by STATE SOCIALISM; the paternalistic functions in this