SALARIAT; INTELLECTUAL PROLETARIAT; PROPERTARIAT; BOURGEOISIE; MIDDLE CLASS; CLASS STRUGGLE; DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT; COMMUNIST MANIFESTO; CONCENTRATION OF Capital THEORY.)

Propertariat. A term sometimes used, as an antithesis to PROLETARIAT, to designate the affluent or propertied classes of a community. (See BOURGEOISIE.)

Protective Chairman. See SHOP CHAIRMAN.

Protective Fund. See STRIKE FUND.

Protocol. After a severe strike in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry of New York City in 1910, a so-called "protocol" or treaty of peace was made between the Cloak, Suit, and Skirt Manufacturers' Protective Association, on the one hand, and various local unions of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, acting with the advice and assistance of the national officers, on the other. This arrangement provided for various matters in controversy, as well as for a MINIMUM WAGE Scale, a fifty-hour working week, a joint board of sanitary control, the PREFERENTIAL SHOP, and a plan for adjusting future disputes by means of a Board of Grievances and a Board of Arbitration, with equal representation in each case for both manufacturers and employees. Both sides bound themselves to accept the awards of these boards. The Board of Grievances was composed at first of four members, later increased to ten, an equal number from each side. In cases of deadlock the dispute was to be referred to a Board of Arbitration, consisting of three members, one representing each party and one the IMPARTIAL CHAIRMANchosen by the other two or, in case of their failure to agree, by the governor of the state. After some experimenting, the following procedure was established: Any individual having cause for dissatisfaction might appeal to the Board of Grievances. A clerk of this Board first took up the matter, and adjusted it, if possible, in accordance with established procedure. If this failed the matter was considered by the Board of Grievances. In case there was a tie vote or no decision reached, the matter went to the Board of Arbitration and its decision was final, as both parties to the protoco were bound by it. In practical operation the protocol was for a time very successful, and its essential features were widely copied in other TRADE AGREEMENTS. But in 1915 new difficulties arose, and the protocol was superseded by a new agreement on somewhat different lines.

Provident Benefits. This term is used in Great Britain in general designation of any payment made by a trade union to a member during any sickness or incapacity or while out of work, or to an aged member, or to a member who has met with an accident or lost his tools by fire or theft, or to a member in discharge of funeral expenses, or to the children of a deceased member.

Provisional Members. See MEMBERs at Large.

Provocateur. See AGENT PROVOCATEUR.

Public Account System of Convict Labor. Under this system penal or reformatory institutions carry on the business of manufacturing, or other industries, like private individuals or firms, buying raw materials and converting them into manufactured products, or producing agricultural crops, which are sold in the best available market, the entire proceeds and profits accruing to the State, its political subdivisions or institutions. (See CONVICT LABOR SYSTEMS; PRISON LABOR; REGIE.)

Public Employment Bureaus. See EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS.
Public Ownership. See NATIONALIZATION.

Public Works and Ways System of Convict Labor. Under this system the labor of convicts is utilized in the construction or repair of public roads, bridges, buildings, and other public improvements. (See CONVICT LABOR SYSTEMS; PRISON LABOR.)

Pullman Strike. See DEBS CASE.

Punitive Overtime. See OVERTIME.

Pure and Simple Unionism. CRAFT UNIONISM, particularly of the functional type known as BUSINESS UNIONISM, is often so called. The phrase is said to have been first used by Samuel Gompers, in designation of the form of trade unionism prevailing within the AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR. It was quickly taken up by the I. W. W. and other revolutionary unionists, and applied in a derisive sense as for example in dubbing the A. F. of L. "pure and simpledom," or in referring to craft unionists as "pure and simples," "pure and simplers," etc.

Pushers. See SPEEDING UP.

R

Radical, Radicalism. From the Latin radix, meaning "root"; hence "pertaining to the root or foundation of the subject; concerned with or based upon fundamental principles; thoroughgoing, extreme." In any sane and accurate sense a radical, whether within or without the labor movement, is simply one who believes in political, social, or economic reforms that strike at the root of an evil rather than at its surface aspects; while radicalism is the general attitude or philosophy based on such a belief. The common tendency, so sedulously fostered by reactionary public officials in every country, to associate the terms "radical" and "radicalism" exclusively with ideas of working-class violence and lawlessness, regardless of the actual meaning of the terms, is no less absurd and unwarranted than would be a similar tendency to associate "conservative" and "conservatism" exclusively with ideas of capitalistic or governmental violence and lawlessness. (See INTRANSIGENTS; LEFT.)

Raiffeisen Banks. As initiated by Friedrich Raiffeisen of Germany in 1849, these institutions now represent one of the two main types of CREDIT UNIONS which flourish in all European countries. Under the Raiffeisen plan, the people of a small area borrow money on their joint responsibility, and loan it out among themselves for certain specified purposes (usually agricultural improvements) at a slightly higher rate of interest than is paid on the collective loan. The banks do not work for profit, and are conducted by unpaid directors. (See CREDIT COOPERATION; SCHULZE-DELITZSCH BANKS.)

Railroad Boards of Labor Adjustment. During the period of Federal control of the railways, arrangements were made for the establishment of "railroad boards of labor adjustment" to deal with such minor controversies growing out of the interpretation or application of agreements as were not promptly adjusted by the officials and the employees on any of the railroads under Federal control. Three such boards were established during 1918 by former DirectorGeneral McAdoo, consisting on the one hand of representatives of

the railway managements and on the other of representatives of the "big four" RAILWAY BROTHERHOODS (Board No. 1), the shop workers (Board No. 2), and the maintenance-of-way men, telegraphers, switchmen, and clerks (Board No. 3). The Federal Transportation Act allowed for the continuance of these boards, as a part of the machinery for CONCILIATION and ARBITRATION in the railway industry. They were, however, dissolved by Director-General Payne in December, 1920. (See RAILROAD LABOR BOARD.)

Railroad Bull. See BULL SYSTEM.

Railroad Labor Board. As created by the Federal Transportation Act of 1920, this is a permanent salaried body of nine members, including three representatives of the railroad managements, three of railway employees, and three of "the public." The Board is empowered to hear and decide disputes involving wages, grievances, rules, or working conditions, which have failed of settlement by a RAILROAD BOARD OF LABOR ADJUSTMENT or by mutual agreement between the contending parties. It may, on petition of either party to a dispute, or on its own motion in serious cases, fix "just and reasonable" rates of wages and standards of working conditions, the same to be made a matter of record and to be published. Decisions of the Board require the concurrence of at least five of the nine members; and in cases of decisions regarding wages or salaries, at least one of the representatives of the public must concur in the decision. Broad powers are vested in the Board with respect to compelling the attendance of witnesses, the production of books and documents, etc., but no penalty is specifically provided for the violation of its decisions. The Board is required to maintain permanent central headquarters in Chicago. (See NATIONAL AGREEMENTS IN THE RAILWAY INDUSTRY.)

Railway Boycott. As commonly understood, this consists in the refusal of railway employees to handle certain classes of carsas for example, those coming from a railway on which there is a strike. This form of BOYCOTT is peculiar in its character, inasmuch as it involves usually only concerted action by the workingmen themselves, without attempt to influence the public to refuse patronage. Again, the boycott is effected often by means of a strike, by quitting employment, in order to avoid handling cars. On the other hand, a railway boycott conducted in this way is even more effective than one which consists merely in refusal of patronage. If the cars of a railway company can not be hauled at all, because of the refusal

of the employees, the willingness of the public to patronize the railroad is a matter of no significance. (See MANDATORY INJUNCTION.)

Railway Brotherhoods. There are sixteen "recognized" national or international organizations of railway workers in the United States; and of these, eleven use the word "brotherhood" in their titles. The organizations of a majority of the so-called "shop workers" (machinists, etc.) and of the clerks, freighthandlers, switchmen, etc., are affiliated with the AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR and with the RAILWAY EMPLOYEES' DEPARTMENT of the Federation. The term "railway brotherhoods," however, is most commonly used in designation of the four principal organizations of railway workers-the Grand International Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers (originally the "Brotherhood of the Footboard"), the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen, the Order of Railway Conductors, and the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen (originally the Brotherhood of Railroad Brakemen), known popularly as the "Big Four" and having a combined membership of about half a million. These organizations came into existence as benevolent associations formed by the workers to protect themselves and their families, because of the difficulty of securing insurance in the regular insurance companies on account of the special hazards of their work. This insurance feature has developed into an immense business, and most of the brotherhoods have accumulated huge funds. The insurance or benefit departments are usually separately organized, although membership in such a department is compulsory for all members of the brotherhood. The structure and administrative machinery of the brotherhoods are too elaborate, and differ too widely in detail among the various organizations, to permit of intelligible summary here. In the matter of organization, nomenclature, and ritual, several of them still retain the character of fraternal orders. A joint body, representative of the sixteen unions and known as the "Associated Standard Recognized Railroad Labor Organizations," has been formed for dealing with questions of national scope. The "Big Four" also cooperate in joint action of various sorts-as for example, in a "Joint National Legislative Board," maintained for "utilizing the combined influence" and "insuring harmonious action" in the matter of public legislation. Composed as they are of skilled and relatively well-paid wage-earners employed by quasi-public corporations, and working under definite and standardized scales of wages, the "Big Four" brotherhoods represent the conservative aristocracy of the labor world, and their