as arbitration boards or arbitration committees. The term "arbitration" seems fairly applicable to the decisions of such committees, despite the fact that there is no appeal to any person outside the trade. The settlement of disputes in such cases is not reached by negotiation directly between the parties concerned, but by the binding decision of higher representatives of the organizations to which they belong-representatives supposedly free from the personal bias and feelings of animosity which are likely to exist among those immediately concerned in disputes. This system of settling differences within the trade, without appeal to outside agencies, is often called "trade arbitration" or "arbitration within the trade." But even when outside umpires or arbitrators are called in, these phrases are sometimes used, as distinguishing the general system described from any form of state or other governmental method of arbitrating industrial disputes. (See ARBITRATION; CONTINUOUS ARBITRATION; IMPARTIAL CHAIRMAN; IMPARTIAL MACHINERY; CONFERENCE BOARDS; LABOR MANAGER; AGREEMENT SYSTEM; ADJUSTMENT BOARD; GRIEVANCE COMMITTEE.) Trade Autonomy. See AUTONOMY. Trade Benefits. See BENEFITS. Trade Boards. Under the original British Trade Boards Act of 1909, these were statutory bodies set up to fix MINIMUM WAGES in four notoriously "sweated" trades-chain-making, lace-finishing, box-making, and tailoring. In 1918 the Act was amended so as to be applicable to other industries. As the law now stands, the Minister of Labor, if he considers that there is no effective machinery for the regulation of wages throughout a trade and that in view of the rate of wages prevailing in it a trade board is desirable, may make a special order with a view to setting up a board. It is open to any interested party to object and to demand an inquiry, but the Minister has complete discretion to take whatever action he thinks best, when he has heard the result of the inquiry. The trade board consists of an equal number of representatives of employers and workers in the trade, to whom is added a neutral chairman, and two or four persons unconnected with the trade, who are known as "appointed members." The size of the board depends upon the size of the trade. The board must fix a minimum rate or rates of wages for TIME WORK, and, where no other rate has yet been fixed, piece workers must be paid at rates sufficient to yield an ordinary worker at least as much as the minimum time rate. The board can fix different rates for different classes of workers or for different districts. When the minimum wages fixed by a trade board have been confirmed by the Minister of Labor, they are enforceable by criminal proceedings, and officers are appointed to secure their observance. The minimum rates thus become part of the law of the land. Trade Boycott. See BoycOTT. Trade Club. The oldest and simplest type of labor organization, consisting of a comparatively small number of workers following the same occupation in the same locality. Historically, the trade club was the governmental unit of the early labor organizations, although in some trades the workers of a single establishment were grouped in a SHOP CLUB, such as the printers' CHAPEL, which was, and still is—an important administrative unit of the trade union. In America at least, the trade clubs are now extinct, having gradually expanded into or been absorbed by the local trade unions. Trade Dispute. As officially defined in the British NATIONAL INSURANCE ACT, a trade dispute means "any dispute between employers and workmen or between workmen and workmen, which is connected with the employment or non-employment, or the terms of employment, or with the conditions of labor, of any persons, whether workmen in the employment of the employer with whom the dispute arises or not." (See STRIKE.) Trade Disputes Act. Following the momentous TAFF VALE DECISION, which vitally undermined the fighting strength of British trade unionism, five years of agitation on the part of organized British labor resulted, in 1906, in the passage of a Parliamentary enactment known as the Trade Disputes Act. This measure, which is perhaps the most important piece of labor legislation in recent times, contains the following provisions: "(1) An agreement or combination of two or more persons to do or procure to be done any act in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute between employers and workmen shall not be indictable as a conspiracy if such an act committed by one person would not be punishable as a crime. An act done in pursuance of an agreement or combination by two or more persons shall, if done in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute, not be actionable unless the act, if done without any such agreement or combination, would be actionable. (2) An action against a trade union, whether of workmen or masters, or against any members or officials thereof on behalf of themselves and all other members of the trade union in respect of any tortious act alleged to have been committed by or on behalf of the trade union, shall not be entertained by any court. (3) An act done by a person in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute shall not be actionable on the ground only that it induces some other person to break a contract of employment or that it is an interference with the trade, business, or employment of some other person, or with the right of some other person to dispose of his capital or his labor as he wills. (4) It shall be lawful for one or more persons, acting either on their own behalf or on behalf of a trade union or of an individual employer or firm in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute, to attend at or near a house or place where a person resides or works or carries on business or happens to be, if they so attend merely for the purpose of peacefully obtaining or communicating information, or of peacefully persuading any person to work or abstain from working. (5) Every person who, with a view to compel any other person to abstain from doing or to do any act which such other person has a legal right to do or abstain from doing, wrongfully and without legal authority-(a) uses violence to or intimidates such other person or his wife or children, or injures his property; or (b) persistently follows such other person about from place to place; or (c) hides any tools, clothes, or other property owned or used by the other person, or deprives him of or hinders him in the use thereof; or (d) watches or besets the house or other place where such other person resides, or works, or carries on business, or happens to be, or the approach to such a house or place; or (e) follows such other person with two or more other persons in a disorderly manner in or through any street or road, shall on conviction thereof by a court of summary jurisdiction, or an indictment as hereinafter mentioned, be liable either to pay a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, or to be imprisoned for a term not exceeding three months, with or without hard labor." It is worth noting that the British courts have since decided that a trade union need not be actually engaged in a dispute in order to gain the protection of the Trade Disputes Act. This measure is generally regarded as the main charter of British trade unionism. Trade Education. See INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. Trade Extension Schools. See PART-TIME SCHOOLS. Trade Jurisdiction. See JURISDICTION. Trade Monopoly. See MONOPOLY POLICY OF TRADE UNIONISM. Trade Movements. STRIKES and LOCKOUTS are sometimes so called by trade unionists. Trade Organs. Nearly every important labor organization of national scope in the United States issues a periodical devoted wholly or mainly to the organization's own interests. There are, of course, very broad differences of policy and of value between the journals of the several organizations. Many of them contain interesting discussions, from the trade union point of view, of important social questions. Others are confined entirely to the chronicling of events whose interest is practically confined to the members of the particular trade concerned. Some of them publish in every issue a list of all the LOCALS of their organizations and of the principal local officers. Some devote much space to local reports of the condition of trade. They are generally the medium of the financial reports of the national officers, and detailed reports of accessions and losses of membership are often given. The great majority of the journals are published monthly. A few appear weekly. In many cases they are sent free to all members of the organization, and are supported either out of the general funds of the organization or by a special tax. These journals are usually edited by one of the regular officers of the national union, but in a few cases a special editor is employed. (See LABOR PRESS.) Trade Parliament. This term is often used in England as synonymous with a NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL COUNCIL under the WHITLEY PLAN. Trade Preparatory Schools. See PART-TIME SCHOOLS. Trade Privilege Benefit. As occasionally found in some trade unions (as for example the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners), this is in practical effect a combined strike and lockout BENEFIT. Trade Risk Principle. As sometimes recognized in EMPLOYER'S LIABILITY laws, this is the principle or conception that a large number of industrial accidents occur through no fault of either employer or employee, but simply as a consequence of certain industrial processes, or, as it is sometimes called, the "general hazard of the industry"; and that the employer, as the representative of the industry, should bear the financial burden of such accidents, rather than the injured worker. The social and legal recognition of this principle paved the way in large part for the idea of WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION. The term "professional risk" is sometimes used in designation of this principle. Trade Rules. See WORKING RULES. Trade Schools. As a direct substitute for APPRENTICESHIP, the trade school aims to impart a thorough practical knowledge of some specific trade or craft. Such schools are sometimes a part of the public educational system; sometimes they are organized and maintained under private endowment; sometimes they are carried on in connection with large industrial establishments, for the training of beginners. In its simplest form, trade school instruction "is confined entirely or chiefly to the workshop, and consists in perfecting the pupil in the practice of the manipulations and operations of skilled workmen at particular trades." The training may be either brief and intensive, or it may cover a period of three or four years. As a general rule, trade schools do not admit applicants under sixteen years of age. (See AuCHMUTY SYSTEM; PART-TIME SCHOOLS; FACTORY SCHOOLS; RAILWAY SCHOOLS; TEXTILE SCHOOLS; FACHSCHULEN; ÉCOLES NATIONALES PROFESSIONALES.) Trade Tests. Methods of determining the skill or capacity of industrial workers-particularly applicants for jobs. The tests consist usually of (1) a series of questions, written answers to which are required; (2) pictures in which the worker is asked to identify tools or parts of machinery; (3) actual performance tests at the specific work. In addition, general intelligence tests are sometimes given, also tests to disclose any specialized ability. (See RATING SCALE.) Trade Union. Perhaps the best general definition of this term is that by Mr. and Mrs. Sidney Webb: "A continuous association of wage-earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their working lives." Associations of this sort have existed in England for more than two centuries, and in the United States since 1792, under various names-institutions, associations, clubs, societies, TRADE CLUBS, trade societies, unions, union societies, etc. In the early thirties of the 19th century, the term TRADES', UNION began to appear in both England and the United States, in designation of a union of the trades in a single city. Later, in the form "trade union," the term was turned back and applied to the separate trade clubs or trade societies, and then to the national or international unions of local societies in the same trade. When the local American trade unions of a single city again began to unite in the sixties, the resulting combinations were called "trades' assemblies," ""central labor unions," etc. Now the general term CENTRAL BODIES OF CITY CENTRALS is used in the United States to designate what were the "trades' unions" of the thirties and the "trades' assemblies," etc., of the sixties, and the terms "trades union" and |