after deducting his charges at the store or for rent. Even when wages are paid in cash, the employees are sometimes virtually compelled to deal at stores or to live in houses owned or controlled by the employer. Various state laws either prohibit the truck system altogether or else restrict it in an effort to prevent coercion, extortion, etc. But even when such laws are not declared unconstitutional (as they often have been), there is an inherent difficulty in enforcing the penalties of the law upon the employer, since prosecution must usually be instituted by the employee or by some one in his behalf. In either case the certainty of discharge makes him anxious to avoid the prosecution. Consequently almost the only cases where the law is enforced are in those industries where a strong labor organization has taken up the issue; and even then the result is not usually accomplished by a legal prosecution but by the ordinary direct influence of the union. In England the word "truck" is often used as a synonym for the truck system. Also called "order system" and "payment in kind." (See TOMMY; SCRIPT; LIVING-IN SYSTEM.)

Trust. As commonly understood in the United States, a trust is a permanent combination of capital on the part of several business enterprises, in number sufficient to represent a majority of those producing a given commodity or performing a given service. The principal object of such a combination is manifestly to control the production and price of its product; or in case of a combination of public utility companies, to dominate the territory affected, in the matter of rates and service. The term had its origin in the form of organization adopted in 1882, to combine the interests of competing producers of oil. The stockholders of all the CORPORATIONS which were parties to the agreement placed all their shares of stock in the hands of trustees and received in exchange trust certificates. These trustees had absolute power of voting the stock that was placed in their hands, and were therefore able to control the policy of each corporation which entered into the agreement. This form of combination was known as a "voting trust"; but because of legal difficulties, it soon gave way to the "holding company" method, under which a new corporation is formed, with power to purchase either for cash or with its own stock the stocks of the several companies included in the trust, the relation of trustee and trust thus being changed to that of owner and property, and the board of trustees giving way to a board of directors. Practically all present-day trusts are organized on this plan; but it should be noted that not all so-called "holding companies" are trusts, some being formed for purely financial serv

ices. In relation to trade unionism, the trust presents a problem of peculiar difficulty. "It is here," says Dr. Weyforth, "that the employee labors under the greatest disadvantage in competition with thousands of his fellow workers under the process of INDIVIDUAL BARGAINING with the employer, who possess the advantage of having a restricted field of competing employers bidding for the same labor that he desires. It seems that here above all is the place where trade unionism is necessary for the purposes of COLLECTIVE BARGAINING. In just this field, however, are to be found the most glaring examples of its complete break-down. The fundamental factor in this situation is the superior strategical strength of the employer under such form of business organization. This superior strategical strength is due to three causes: (1) the greater financial resources of the trust and the difficulty of the union in obtaining a substantial foothold in the industry; (2) the control by the trust over a number of plants; (3) the restriction of the area of employment for the men." While a few national unions have combated the trust with a considerable degree of success, trade unionism has for the most part made little progress in this field. As a consequence, some of the worst labor conditions of today are to be found in certain "trustified" industries.

Trusteeing of Wages. See GARNISHMENt of Wages.

Turn List or Turn Bulletin. A trade union device for ensuring an equal division of work among union members during a period of slack production. In the JOINT INTERState agreemenTS IN BITUMINOUS COAL-MINING, for example, it is usually provided that "the OPERATOR shall see that an equal turn is offered each miner and that he be given a fair chance to obtain the same. The CHECKWEIGHMAN shall keep a turn bulletin for the turn keeper's guidance." (See WORK SHARING.)

Turn System. See SHIFT SYSTEM.

Turnout. A STRIKE is often thus designated by the workers, particularly in England. (See WALKOUT; DOWN TOOLS.)

Turnover. See LABOR TURNOVER.

Turnway Societies. These organizations of Thames watermen, the purpose of which is to regulate the "turns" or order in which the men plying at any particular "stairs" serve the passengers who present themselves, constitute the most primitive form or method of WORK SHARING,

Tutorial Class Movement. The method of adult WORKINGCLASS EDUCATION in England and other parts of the British Empire, consisting of weekly lesson classes under the direction of salaried tutors for three-year courses in various non-vocational subjects, is so called. This work is mainly carried on under the direction of the WORKERS' EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION; it is financed by grants from national and local educational authorities and from the universities, by income from endowments, and by nominal fees from students.

Twelve-Hour Day. A continuous working day of twelve hours was at one time the rule rather than the exception in industry. Through the pressure of working-class organization it has been gradually eliminated, until it now survives mainly in those industries which have successfully resisted UNIONIZATION-chiefly in the American steel industry, where not only the twelve-hour day but the sevenday week has long been common for large numbers of workers. The evil effects, both individual and social, of the twelve-hour day have been set forth in detail in the special report on the "long day" in the steel industry, made for the Cabot Fund and published in “The Survey" of March 5, 1921. (See LONG TURN.)

Twenty-One Articles of Faith. See LENIN'S TWENTY-ONE

CONDITIONS.

Twicer. In the British printing trades, a compositor who is also a pressman is so nicknamed. The term is also applied to a trade union official who tries to fill two jobs at once-for example, as the secretary of a national union and a LABOR MEMBER of Parliament.

Two and a Half Internationale. ING UNION OF SOCIALIST PARTIES.

See INTERNATIONAL WORK

Two Day-Shift System. That form of the SHIFT SYSTEM under which industrial work is carried on from dawn until dark by two sets or shifts of workers. Thus, under the British "Employment of Women, Young Persons, and Children Act, 1920," women and YOUNG PERSONS may be legally employed in factories or workshops at any time between six A.M. and ten P.M. on any week-day except Saturday, and on Saturday between six A.M. and two P.M., in shifts averaging not more than eight hours a day each-provided government permission has been granted upon joint application of the employer and a majority of the workpeople in each factory or workshop.

Two-Shift System. See SHIFT SYSTEM.

Two-Machine System. In many industries there are certain machine-tools which require the attendance of a skilled machinist, but on which when once the piece of metal is properly set, the work proceeds automatically until the time comes for setting another piece. It is thus possible for one skilled workman to tend more than one such machine, and by so doing he can of course greatly increase his output. This form of labor-saving is strongly objected to by trade unions, on the ground that it reduces employment and so tends to lower the general scale of wages in the industry. (See MACHINE QUESTION; LIMITATION OF OUTPUT.)

U

U. G. T. See UNION GENERAL DE TRABAJADORES.

U. I. L. See UNIONE ITALIANA DEL LAVORO.

U. S. I. See UNIONE SYNDICALE ITALIANA.

Ulster Unionist Labor Association. See IRISH LABOR PARTY AND TRADES UNION CONGRESS.

Ulster Workers' Union. See IRISH LABOR PARTY AND TRADES UNION CONGRESS.

Under-Consumption Theory. As commonly understood, the theory that the workers lack the necessary purchasing power to satisfy their legitimate wants. Until such wants are satisfied, what is called general OVER-PRODUCTION is simply general under-consumption. Because of low wages, UNEMPLOYMENT, etc., the workers must do without many commodities which they would otherwise consume; hence over-production and industrial shutdowns; hence unemployment, low wages, and loss of profits. Until a greater consuming power is given to the masses, it is held, there can be no break in the vicious circle. "The working people simply live from hand to mouth and consume what they get. The wealthy classes, with their large incomes, do not in fact consume all that comes to them. They therefore invest a large part of their incomes in productive enterprises. They add to the productive capacity more than the market will stand. In the end more goods are produced than there is a market for, and collapse necessarily comes. If the working people, who consume all they get, had a larger purchasing power, the consuming power of society as a whole would be greater, and its producing power would be less; so the phenomenon of congestion would not appear."

Under-Cover Men. Industrial spies are commonly so designated by their employers. They are private detectives (sometimes in the permanent employ of large industrial corporations or EMPLOYERS' ASSOCIATIONS, Sometimes hired from LABOR DETECTIVE AGENCIES)