existing in every industrial establishment, the other trades are manifesting a growing tendency to admit such potentially dangerous competitors to their unions." (See SKILLED WORKER; SEMI-SKILLED WORKER; LABORER; COMMON LABOR; GREEN HANDS; GENERAL WORKERS; IMMIGRATION.)

Unternehmer. See ENTREPRENEUR.

Uplift Unionism or Friendly Unionism. Terms used by Professor Hoxie in designation of the functional type of labor organization that seeks to elevate the moral, intellectual, and social life of the worker as well as improve his conditions of labor. It employs COLLECTIVE BARGAINING, but resorts by preference to POLITICAL ACTION, and emphasizes MUTUAL INSURANCE, PROFIT SHARING, and COOPERATION. It is as a rule conservative and law-abiding, and shares many other of the characteristics of BUSINESS UNIONISM. (See OLD UNIONISM.)

Utility Man. In some industries, this is the common designation for "an experienced, all-round, handy employee who is shifted from one kind of work to another as needed, and fills in temporarily for employees who are absent from duty."

Utopian Socialism. In its dogmatic form, the doctrine that society should be reconstructed to conform to an ideal pattern devised by some individual thinker. The forms of socialism known as SAINT-SIMONISM and FOURIERISM are of this kind. As contrasted with SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM, which holds that social institutions are moulded by material forces over which man has no conscious control, Utopian socialism holds that the future of society can be shaped by deliberate choice and action on the part of its members.

V

Vacant Book. See REGISTRY SYSTEM.

Vacationists. A term applied by strikers to themselves when they wish to avoid the technical admission that they are exerting economic pressure by concerted action. It first appeared during the New York printers' strike of 1919, which was not authorized by the international union officials; and was used again by the railroad men in 1920, who were wary of prosecution under the Federal law. Dissatisfied workers who, for one reason or another, are forbidden to strike now merely "take vacations." (See OUTLAWS; SECESSIONISTS; STRIKE IN Detail.)

Vagabond's Wage. A term sometimes used in designation of a sum sufficient to secure the minimum necessities of life, which under some future form of society would be paid to all persons equally, regardless of whether they work or not.

Value of Labor. See LABOR COST; WAGES.

Vertical Combination. See LARGE-SCALE PRODUCTION.

Vested Interests Doctrine. Mr. and Mrs. Webb use this term in designation of the common trade union assumption "that the wages and other conditions of employment hitherto enjoyed by any section of workmen ought under no circumstances to be interfered with for the worse. It was this doctrine... which inspired the long struggle . . . against the introduction of machinery, or any innovation in processes. It is this doctrine which today gives the bitterness to DEMARCATION disputes, and lies at the back of all the Regulations dealing with the 'RIGHT TO A TRADE.' It does more than anything else to keep alive the idea of 'PATRIMONY' and the practice of a lengthened period of APPRENTICESHIP, whilst it induces the workmen of particular trades to cling fondly to the expedient of limiting the numbers entering those trades, even after experience has proved such a limitation to be impracticable. But the Doctrine of Vested Interests extends much further than these particular

Regulations. There is scarcely an industry in which it will not be found, on one occasion or another, inspiring the defence of the customary rates of wages or any threatened privilege. In some cases, indeed, we find the whole argument for Trade Unionism based on this one conception."

Vestibule Schools. Refers to a plan of training new workers, particularly women, in large industrial plants. Under this plan machinery is installed in a reserved section of the factory proper or in a separate building which is a part of the plant. In these instruction rooms working conditions are reproduced as nearly as possible, so that the workers may not only absorb a little of the shop atmosphere and conquer the timidity induced by new work in unusual surroundings but also acquire some degree of skill before beginning work in the shop. Vestibule training was widely practiced during the recent war, particularly in connection with the process known as DILUTION

OF LABOR.

Vice Principal Doctrine. See SUPERIOR SERVANT DOCTRINE.

Victim Pay or Victimization Pay. A form of OUT-OF-WORK BENEFIT accorded to trade union members who, because of special zeal or activity in union matters, have been discharged by their employers. It is usually more liberal than the ordinary out-of-work benefit, and in a few unions is equal to the full wages of the "victimized" member. (See VICTIMIZATION.)

Victimization. As used in labor circles, this term usually refers to the dismissal, ordinarily on some petty or invented charge, of a workman who has offended his foreman or employer by undue zeal as a trade union official, strike leader, SHOP STEWARD, or in some other similar capacity. In a less extreme form, victimization may consist in unfair DOCKING or in assigning an undesirable job or place of work to an "offending" worker, or in various other practices known to foremen, superintendents, and employers. A trade unionist who has suffered from victimization is sometimes referred to by his fellow-unionists as a "sacrificed member." (See VICTIM PAY; ONEMAN STRIKE; ALLOCATION OF WORK.)

Victorian Wages Board System. As adopted by the Australian state of Victoria in 1896, this is a method of compulsory industrial regulation by means of official wages boards for particular industries. The original act applied only to certain "sweated" trades, but since 1903 it has been extended to cover practically all the ordinary indus

tries of the state. A wages board consists of an equal number of employers and workers, chosen by the government, with an IMPARTIAL CHAIRMAN. Its function is to fix minimum standards of wages, hours, and working conditions in a single industry. The finding of the board becomes the common rule for that industry, and any employer who goes below the standard fixed is subject to cash penalties. The functions of a wages board indirectly give it a considerable source of control over industrial disputes; but the RIGHT TO STRIKE is not seriously interfered with. The British TRADE BOARDS ACT of 1909 copies the main outlines of the Victorian wages board system. (See WAGE BOARDS.)

Vienna Internationale. See INTERNATIONAL WORKING UNION OF SOCIALIST PARTIES.

Vigilance Committee. See WATCH COMMITTEE.

Villeinage. See SERFDOM.

Violence in the Labor Movement. Whether in the ordinary sense of "highly excited feeling or action," in the legal sense of “unlawful exercise of physical force," or in the extreme sense of "physical outrage or injury," violence exists in the labor movement to about the same relative extent, probably, as in any other definite section or group of society. The staff report of the FEDERAL COMMISSION ON INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS Contains the following conclusions on the subject: "Violence is seldom, if ever, spontaneous, but arises from a conviction that fundamental rights are denied and that peaceful methods of adjustment can not be used. The sole exception seems to lie in the situation where, intoxicated with power, the stronger party to the dispute relies upon force to suppress the weaker. The arbitrary suppression of violence by force produces only resentment, which will rekindle into greater violence when opportunity offers. Violence can be prevented only by removing the causes of violence; industrial peace can rest only upon industrial justice. The origin of violence in connection with industrial disputes can usually be traced to the conditions prevailing in the particular industry in times of peace or to arbitrary action on the part of governmental officials which infringes on what are conceived to be fundamental rights. Violence and disorder during actual outbreaks usually result from oppressive conditions that have obtained in a particular shop or factory or in a particular industry. Throughout history where a people or a group have been arbitrarily denied rights which they conceived to be theirs, reaction has been inevitable. Violence is a natural form of protest

...

against injustice. Violence in industrial disputes is not immediately the product of industrial conditions, but of the attitude of the parties to the dispute after grievances or demands have been presented. The principal sources of an attitude leading to violence are: (1) Arrogance on the part of the stronger party. This may result immediately in violence through the use of force for the suppression of the weaker party. The force used may be physical or industrial. Physical force may be and is used by both employers and employees, through INTIMIDATION, assaults, or attacks on property. Such physical aggression is seldom used by employees, as they are strategically the weaker party and the results are negative; only under exceptional circumstances can an employer be coerced by the use of force or intimidation. The exceptions seem to lie in the use of secret means, such as dynamite, with the object of weakening the employer's resistance. The use of force by workers is normally directed not against the person or property of the employer, but against STRIKEBREAKERS and guards. Many instances of the use of physical force by the agents of employers have, however, come before the Commission, indicating a relatively wide use, particularly in isolated communities. Such acts of violence usually take the form of assaults upon the leaders of the workers or upon ORGANIZERS. (2) Equally productive of an attitude leading to violence is the denial of the use of peaceful methods of adjusting grievances, or the creation of a situation in which their use becomes impossible. On the part of the employer the arbitrary acts which may be classed under this general head are: Denial of the right to organize; refusal to consider the complaints of workers; refusal to meet the authorized representatives of the workers. . . . On the part of the workers, the possibility of peaceful settlement may be destroyed by refusal to discuss claims, by internal dissensions which render collective and definite action looking to a settlement impossible, and by the issuance of ultimata which allow no time for consideration and negotiation. In any one of these situations the employer has only the choice between tame submission or absolute resistance to the demands of the workers. (3) The immediate cause of violence in connection with industrial disputes is almost without exception the attempt to introduce strikebreakers to take the place of the workers who have struck or who are locked out. The entire problem of policing industrial disputes grows out of the problem of the strikebreaker and the attitude of the State toward him. . . . (4) The greatest disorders and most acute outbreaks of violence in connection with industrial disputes arise from the violation of what are considered to be fundamental